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Forward Looking Lessons 
IN U.S. History 



UP - TO - DATE — ALIVE 
FOR SEVENTH GRADE 



W.J. SAVAGE 

SUPERINTENDENT OF THE COLMA AND DALY CITY SCHOOLS 
CALIFORNIA 



1919 

HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 

SAN FRANCISCO 

CALIFORNIA 



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1919 
Copyrighted by W. J. Savage 



m 22 1919 



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How and Why These Lessons Were 
Composed and Published 



After trying to teach United States History in 
schools of California for twenty years, using such texts 
as were available, the writer felt that he had never 
succeeded. 

No matter what plan he followed, nearly one-half of 
each class lost interest before the end was reached. 
Seeking for improvement, these lessons were developed. 
Each lesson was dictated to an average class, the pupils 
writing in their blank-books. The comprehension of 
the weaker members was constantly borne in mind. 

The following day the recitation took place. The 
abler ones gave it in their own language. It was con- 
sidered no disgrace for the others to recite verbatim. 
For all there was a steady increase of vocabulary and 
history. When the usual questions were asked, all were 
ready with complete answers. 

At the end of the year the ability of the class, com- 
pared to that of the many preceding ones, was agree- 
ably surprising. More than ninety per cent of them 
had retained interest in the study and were able to 
speak and write upon almost any topic fluently and 
correctly. 

For ten years past the lessons have been used, in 
different localities, by seventh and eighth grade teach- 
ers, and all report decided success. 

The best eighth grade teacher the writer has known 
said that she had always felt she was a failure in teach- 
ing United States History until she tried these lessons. 
With them her pupils were so enthusiastic and anxious 
to discourse on the subject, she knew she had become a 
success. 

Another eighth grade teacher said if she should be 
superseded she would take every history blank-book 
away with her and that then her successor could never 
reach the high standard she had attained. 



Besides a knowledge of history and the expression 
of it, these lessons develop love of country, considera- 
tion for others and independence of thought. 

In conclusion, the lessons have been found to be so 
helpful to the teachers and pupils who have used them 
that the writer has complied with a steadily increasing 
demand and they are published. 

The lessons are offered in two books — one for the 
seventh grade of thirty-seven lessons, each lesson being 
considered ample for a week's work; the other for the 
eighth grade of one hundred nine lessons, each for 
a day's work. 

Sufficient time for frequent reviews of the more 
important subjects and outside reading of history 
remains. 

Respectfully, 

W. J. SAVAGE. 



Publisher's Foreword 

These lessons in United States History 
for the Seventh and Eighth Grades, written 
by W. J. Savage, have been thoroughly tried 
out by practical teachers. The results have 
been so satisfactory that the lessons are pre- 
sented in permanent form. The topical 
method, the simple language, the narrative 
style, the use of a few words to tell the im- 
portant facts, will certainly appeal to teach- 
ers. The publishers believe that this book 
will be of real service to the schools. 



Contents 



Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 

Lesson 10. 

Lesson 11. 

Lesson 12. 

Lesson 13. 

Lesson 14. 

Lesson 15. 

Lesson 16. 
Lesson 17. 
Lesson 18. 
Lesson 19. 
Lesson 20. 
Lesson 21. 
Lesson 22. 
Lesson 23. 

Lesson 24. 
Lesson 25. 
Lesson 26. 

Lesson 27. 
Lesson 28. 
Lesson 29. 
Lesson 30. 
Lesson 31. 

Lesson 32. 
Lesson 33. 
Lesson 34. 

Lesson 35. 

Lesson 36. 
Lesson 37. 



Earliest Discoveries 7 

Earliest Settlements 9 

The Indians 10 

English Explorers 12 

The Thirteen Colonies 14 

Virginia 15 

Massachusetts 17 

New York 19 

Pennsylvania * 20 

Rhode Island 22 

Maryland 24 

Connecticut 25 

Georgia 26 

The French in North America 28 

The Struggle for the Ownership of the Missis- 
sippi Valley 29 

The Wars Between the French and English 30 

First Half of the French and Indian War 32 

Second Half of the French and Indian War 34 

Results of the French and Indian War , 36 

The Cause of the Revolution 37 

The Beginning of the Revolutionary War 39 

The Battle of Bunker Hill 40 

George Washington Became Commander-in- 
Chief 42 

The Continental Congress 44 

Campaign Around New York City 45 

Washington Wins Battle of Trenton and Re- 
stores Confidence 47 

The Battle of Quebec 48 

Philadelphia Falls Into the Hands of the British.. 49 

Turning Point of the Revolution 50 

Suffering at Valley Forge 51 

The Americans Regain Philadelphia and the 

Battle of Monmouth — Benedict Arnold 53 

The Revolution in the South — Yorktown..... 54 

Revolutionary War at Sea 56 

How the Mississippi Valley Was Saved for the 

Americans 56 

The Treaty of Peace That Ended the Revolution- 
ary War 57 

After the Revolutionary War 58 

The American Flag 58 



Earliest Discoveries 

LESSON 1 

Four hundred and fifty years ago only a small part 
of our world was known to civilized people. The parts 
that were known consisted of all of Europe, the north- 
em part of Africa, and the western part of Asia. No 
one knew anything about North and South America 
and very little more was known about the southern 
part of Africa and the eastern part of Asia. 

Even the civilized people of that time were igno- 
rant of many things that we know. They thought that 
the world was flat, that if a ship sailed very far away 
from land it would come to boiling seas, or a falling off 
place, and they thought that the unknown lands were 
inhabited by terrible beasts. 

Finally the compass was invented and this gave the 
sailors more confidence in themselves and they sailed 
farther and farther from land. 

Gradually a few wise men began to think that the 
world was round and not flat. The leader of these wise 
men, who believed the world was round, was Chris- 
topher Columbus. 

He noticed what great trouble the merchants had in 
getting the rich products of Asia to sell in Europe. 
He thought that Asia might be reached by saihng west. 
He tried to explain this idea to the rulers of Italy, but 
they would not listen to him. He was treated about 
the same in Portugal. Then he went to the rulers of 
Spain, and at first they laughed at him, there, too. He 
was treated so badly in Spain that he started out for 
France. He was not far on his way when he was 
called back by messengers sent by Queen Isabella, 
who was ready to give up her jewels in order to pro- 
vide Columbus with ships and men to make the voysLge 
across the unknown Atlantic Ocean. 

With three small ships, he started out from Palos, 
in Spain, and on October 12, 1492, he discovered the 



8 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

New World. The greatest benefit of the discovery of 
Columbus is that it proved that the world was round ; 
that there were no boiling seas; no falling off places; 
and no terrible beasts. 

After Columbus made his first famous voyage he 
crossed the Atlantic three times more. During one of 
these voyages he reached the mainland of South Amer- 
ica in 1499. 

John and Sebastian Cabot, sailing under the Eng- 
lish flag, in 1497 were the first to see the mainland of 
North America. They explored the coast from Lab- 
rador almost to Florida. Upon their voyage and explor- 
ation the English claimed all of North America. 

For many years after the discovery by Columbus, 
the people of Europe did not seem to care for the New 
World. They cared a great deal more for the spices, 
silks and jewels of eastern Asia. Their whole thought 
was to find an easy way to get these articles to sell in 
the markets of Europe. 

Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese sailor, sailed around 
Africa through the Indian Ocean, reached India and 
brought back a shipload of spices and silks in 1499. So 
Vasco de Gama found the easy way to get the goods 
from eastern Asia. 

In 1501 Americus Vespucci, a Portuguese navigator, 
explored the coast of South America. When he re- 
turned home he wrote an account of his trip and de- 
scribed the land he had seen. A German making a 
geography, about the same time, and having read Ves- 
pucci's account, called the New World, America, after 
the writer. This is the way America got its name. No 
one intended to rob Columbus by not giving the new 
land his name. The other name was given by accident. 

In 1513 Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, after 
crossing the Isthmus of Panama. He called it the 
South Sea because he first saw it in that direction. 

In 1513 Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard looking for the 
"fountain of youth," discovered Florida on Easter 
Sunday. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 9 

In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, left 
Spain, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, passed through the 
Straits of Magellan, entered the Pacific Ocean, and 
sailed northward to the East Indies. From there a few 
of his men and one ship went back to Spain by sailing 
through the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good 
Hope and through the Atlantic Ocean. This was the 
first trip around the world. It took nearly three years 
and cost the life of Magellan and most of his men, still 
it was worth all that it cost, because it proved beyond 
doubt that the world was round. It was Magellan that 
gave the name Pacific to the ocean that Balboa had dis- 
covered. He called it so on account of its smoothness 
compared to other oceans. 

In 1519 Cortez conquered Mexico. In 1539 Ferdi- 
nand de Soto discovered the Mississippi River. 



Earliest Settlements 

LESSON 2 

By discovery we mean when a place is seen for the 
first time by civilized men. 

By exploration we mean when a person travels over 
a place that has already been discovered in order to 
find out about its soil, climate, inhabitants and animals. 

By settlement we mean when the people start homes 
in which to live in the new land. 

After the New World had been discovered and 
partly explored, several nations began to prepare to 
establish settlements or colonies in the new land. The 
nations that took part in this work were Spain, Eng- 
land, Russia, Holland, Sweden, France and Portugal. 

The Spanish made their colonies in the West Indies, 
Mexico, California, Florida and South America. 

The Russians made their colony in Alaska. 

The Dutch made their colonies in what is now New 
York. 



10 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The Swedes made their settlements in New Jersey. 

The French made their colonies in Canada and in 
the Mississippi Valley. 

The Portuguese made their colony in what is now 
Brazil in South America. 

Each one of these nations founded its colonies for 
at least three reasons: to trade with the Indians, to 
look for gold, or to get more land for the mother 
country. 

The first settlements in the United States were 
made by the Spanish, the first one being at St. Augus- 
tine in Florida in 1565 and the second one at Santa Fe 
in New Mexico in 1582. 

The first English settlement in the United States 
was made at Jamestown in 1607 and the second Eng- 
lish settlement at Plymouth in 1620. 

Sir Henry Hudson, in 1609, discovered the Hudson 
river for the Dutch and shortly after that the Dutch 
started a settlement there, so that they could trade 
with the Indians. The Dutch were great traders. 

The French began their settlement along the St. 
Lawrence river as early as 1605. 



The Indians 

LESSON 3 

Columbus, thinking that he had reached India upon 
his first voyage, called the natives whom he saw at San 
Salvador and Cuba, Indians. 

This name, although given through mistake, is the 
one by which the original natives are called to this day. 

The Indians whom Columbus and the other discov- 
erers met upon their first voyage, were gentle and 
friendly to the strange visitors. The Indians offered 
presents such as fruit, bows and arrows, and other 
trinkets that they cared for to show their friendliness. 
The early discoverers did not care much for the pres- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 11 

ents that the Indians offered, but were looking anx- 
iously for gold. 

As the years went by, a number of the explorers 
treated the Indians, in different places, cruelly. This 
treatment changed the nature of the Indians, and at 
last they became the enemies of the whites. 

The natives were not all alike. In the far north they 
were called Eskimos and were not much inclined to 
fight. 

The most civilized were the Aztecs of Mexico and 
the Incas of Peru. These Aztecs and Incas had gov- 
ernments, cities and towns. They obtained gold from 
the mines and they cultivated the land. There were 
many of them. 

The noble redman, or real Indian, lived in what is 
now the United States. The redmen had no cities or 
towns or government. They gathered in tribes and 
lived in villages composed of tents called wigwams. The 
strongest and bravest man of the tribe was called the 
chief and all the others obeyed him. 

These red men were very warlike, never being con- 
tented except when at war. They fought tribe against 
tribe, or against the whites, almost all the time. The 
remarkable thing about the redmen is the way in which 
they would suffer pain without letting anyone know 
their feelings. No Indian ever cried or groaned and 
it may be said that he did not laugh, or even smile very 
often. They were cruel to their enemies, taking scalps 
in battle, and sometimes burning their prisoners at the 
stake. They were very good to their friends and never 
forgot a kindness. They believed strongly in taking 
revenge for any unkindness. 

In battle they believed in taking every advantage 
of the enemy. They would sneak upon him at night and 
dash his brains out with a tomahawk while he slept. 
They would ambush behind trees and rocks and would 
shoot the enemy with a bow and arrow when he least 
expected death. 



12 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The noble redmen treated their women as slaves 
and compelled them to do what little work was to be 
done. 

We will close now with a few words which the 
Indians used. They called our books ''talking leaves," 
our ships ''white winged birds/' our whiskey "fire- 
water," our President "the big chief," our heaven the 
"happy hunting grounds," our God "the great spirit," 
and ourselves "the palefaces." 



English Explorers 

LESSON 4 

For about eighty years after the discovery of the 
New World by Columbus in 1492, Spain steadily became 
a stronger and stronger commercial country. For a 
time the Spaniards were the leading commercial people 
of Europe. Spain had immense colonial possessions. 
She ruled nearly all of South America, Mexico, the 
southern part of what is now the United States, the 
East Indies and the West Indies. 

The people of England didn't seem to take much 
interest after the Cabots made their voyage, until the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, who was one of the greatest 
queens of England. Under Queen Elizabeth the Eng- 
lish people began to wake up and to increase the great- 
ness of their country in commerce, in literature and in 
many other ways. 

When England began to improve so rapidly the 
Spanish people became jealous of her and determined 
to crush her. So a great fleet of Spanish warships was 
gathered together to destroy England. This great 
fleet was called the Invincible Armada. The Annada 
sailed from Spain to England. The English sailors, in 
such ships as they had, bravely met and fought the 
Spaniards. Although the Spaniards thought them- 
selves invincible, the Armada was scattered by the 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 13 

English. A big stonn at sea completed the destroy- 
ing of the Invincible Armada. 

After the destruction of the Armada, England be- 
came the rival of Spain in commercial enterprises. 

Sir Francis Drake, one of the captains who fought 
the Armada, was the first Englishman to sail around 
the world. On his famous trip he visited the coast of 
California and spent a winter at a place called Drake's 
Bay. He named the land around the bay New Albion 
and claimed it for England. Sir Francis Drake did not 
care for new lands. He wanted to capture Spanish 
ships and their cargoes. On this famous trip it is said 
that he captured twenty tons of silver and eighty 
pounds of gold from the Spaniards. The Spanish sail- 
ors were much afraid of Sir Francis Drake and called 
him the "Scourge of the Seas." 

The first attempt by the English people to found a 
colony in the New World was made by Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert. With his sailors he sailed across the Atlantic 
from England and landed on the dreary shore of Lab- 
rador. His attempt to start a colony had to be given 
up on account of the extreme cold. On the return trip 
all were lost. 

Sir Walter Raleigh, who was a half-brother of Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert, and a great favorite of Queen Eliz- 
abeth's, resolved to make a success where Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert had failed. Profiting by the knowledge 
gained about the cold climate in Labrador, Raleigh sent 
his settlers to some place on the shore of North Caro- 
lina, where the climate was mild. The ships that 
brought the settlers remained until the little colony 
seemed to be started. It was there, when the ships 
returned to England, but nobody knows what hap- 
pened to it. So Raleigh's attempt to found a colony 
was just about as bad a failure as Gilbert's. 



14 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The Thirteen Colonies 

LESSON 5 

The thirteen colonies are of great interest to every- 
one who loves history, because they are the most im- 
portant colonies ever founded by man. 

These colonies were situated in the eastern part of 
North America, along the Atlantic Coast, between 
Maine on the north and Florida on the south. 

Their names are, beginning on the north and going 
toward the south: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. 

There is a delightful story connected with the found- 
ing of every one of these thirteen great colonies. The 
first settlers of each one had a great many adventures 
and not a few hardships to put up with. They had to 
build log houses for themselves, clear the land of brush 
and trees, and always be on the look-out for hostile 
Indians. While these early settlers had to endure many 
hardships, there were numerous pleasures for them 
also. The young men found great enjo3mient for them- 
selves in hunting wild game and even young ladies took 
an interest in starting new homes in the wilderness. 
In the next few lessons we will learn how the English 
Cavaliers settled Virginia, how the English Puritans 
settled Massachusetts, how the Dutch traders settled 
New York, how the English Quakers settled Pennsyl- 
vania, how the English Catholics settled Maryland, how 
Roger William's followers settled Rhode Island and how 
the English debtors settled Georgia. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 15 

Virginia 

LESSON 6 

For the purpose of settlement the King of England 
granted the land in North America to two companies 
and they were called the London Company and the 
Plymouth Company. The money to carry on the work 
of these two companies was subscribed by the mer- 
chants of London and Plymouth and thus they got 
their names. 

The Pljmiouth Company was granted all the land 
from Nova Scotia to New York and westward to the 
Pacific Ocean. The London Company was granted all 
the land from the Potomac River to the Cape Fear 
River and westward to the Pacific Ocean. 

The London Company was the first to begin the 
work of settlement. In 1607 one hundred and fifty 
colonists were sent out. They landed in Virginia and 
started a settlement which they called Jamestown. The 
first settlers in Virginia were not the right kind of 
men to make a colony successful. They considered 
themselves gentlemen and too good to do hard work. 
Instead of building cabins and gathering a winter's 
supply of food for themselves, they wandered around 
looking at the beautiful country and thinking what fine 
people they were. 

When the winter came there was no shelter for 
them and nothing to eat. More than one-half of them 
died. All of them would have died if it hadn't been 
for good and brave Captain John Smith. He made a 
rule that those who would not work should not be given 
anything to eat. That rule compelled them to go to 
work. 

Captain John Smith was working all the time find- 
ing out about the country and getting food from the 
Indians. Once he was captured by the Indians and 
was going to be put to death. He was stretched on 
the ground and his feet and hands tied to four stakes. 



16 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

A big rock was placed under his head. A stout warrior 
with a large war club was appointed to beat out his 
brains. Just as the first fatal blow was about to be 
struck the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, rushed for- 
ward and saved Captain Smith's life. 

After the first hard winter Jamestown prospered. 
Many other settlers came over from England. Each 
one was given a particular piece of ground to take care 
of. Tobacco and corn were the principal crops. For 
awhile tobacco was used instead of money. The cost 
of bringing over the first women was paid in tobacco. 
After the women came the colonists did better work 
and lived more in contentment. 

In 1619 the people of Virginia started the first rep- 
resentative government in America. It was called the 
House of Burgesses and consisted of representatives 
from each of the several settlements of Virginia. This 
House of Burgesses made all the laws necessary for the 
colony. 

In 1619, the same year that free government was 
introduced in America, the first slaves were brought to 
Virginia. These slaves were negroes brought from 
Africa by a Dutch trading ship. The slaves were bought 
by the Virginians and worked so well in the com and 
tobacco fields that afterwards there was a great de- 
mand for more slaves. 

Virginia was nearly always a royal colony — that is, 
its governor was appointed by the King of England. 
So, sometimes, they had a good governor and more 
times a bad one. One of the worst was Governor Berke- 
ley. He wanted to get rich fast by trading with the 
Indians. He wouldn't protect the colonists against the 
Indians. The people became dissatisfied and under 
Nathaniel Bacon they rose against the Indians and 
drove them away. Then they went after Governor 
Berkeley and frightened him as much as they did the 
Indians. Just as they had control of the colony Na- 
thaniel Bacon died and Bacon's rebellion was at an end. 
Governor Berkeley returned to power and put several 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 17 

of his people to death. For this he was recalled by the 
king. From the time of Bacon's rebellion, Virginia, on 
account of its rich soil and fine climate, steadily grew 
in wealth and population. At the beginning of the Rev- 
olutionary War it was perhaps the most prosperous 
colony. 



Massachusetts 

LESSON 7 

Massachusetts was settled by the Puritans, some- 
times called Pilgrims. They were called Puritans be- 
cause they were so pure in their religious belief and 
they were called Pilgrims because they traveled about 
from place to place. 

The native land of these Puritans was England. 
All things of an English nature were dear to them. 
The only thing they objected to was the English 
Church. They did not like the ceremonies of the 
church and they did not like the liberty that this church 
gave its people, such as dancing, going to the thea- 
tres and having a good time on Sunday. 

The Puritans thought that this was all wrong and 
that people should not have any good times at all, but 
should spend all the time at work or worshiping God. 

The people of the English Church didn't like to have 
the Puritans finding fault with them and their church 
and talking about them. They were stronger than the 
Puritans and so they gave the Puritans a rather hard 
time. It may be said that they persecuted them. 

So a large number of the Puritans went over to 
Holland to find a place where they could worship God 
as they pleased. They had been in Holland only a few 
years when they decided to leave that place. They left 
Holland because they didn't want their children to for- 
get the ways, manners, and customs of old England 
and especially the language. 



18 FORWARD LOOKINK LESSONS 

When they decided to leave Holland they all thought 
of starting a new and a free home for themselves in 
North America. They obtained permission from the 
London Company to found a colony in the New World. 

In the * 'Mayflower" and another vessel they left 
Holland and went to England to bid their friends there 
"good-bye." From England in the "Mayflower," alone, 
about one hundred of them crossed the Atlantic, tak- 
ing sixty-three days to make the trip. They intended 
to land on the coast of New Jersey, but instead they 
landed on the coast of Massachusetts. Here in 1620 
they founded Plymouth, the beginning of the great 
State of Massachusetts. 

Their first Governor was John Carver. Miles Stand- 
ish was their captain. William Brewster was another 
one of their great men. The first winter in the New 
World was a very hard one for them. They had neither 
shelter nor food. More than half of them died. 

Fortunately the Indians, called the Wampanoags, 
were kind to them. The chief, Massasoit, did all he 
could to help them. He gave them com and venison to 
eat and showed them how to plant and raise com. 

When the Puritans had their settlement fairly well 
started they held the first Thanksgiving feast. All the 
people and a number of Indians were present. They 
had roast turkey, com cakes and corn pudding and ven- 
ison. They gave thanks to God for being allowed to 
live in a land where they could worship God as they 
pleased. 

Afterwards many other settlers came to Massachu- 
setts and at the time of the Revolutionary War it was 
perhaps the leading colony in the great struggle for 
Hberty. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 19 

New York 

LESSON 8 

By the discovery and exploration of Sir Henry Hud- 
son, who sailed under the Dutch flag, the Dutch people 
obtained a right to claim New York and the surround- 
ing country. When Sir Henry Hudson went back to 
Holland he told the people about the Hudson River and 
the new land he had seen. He also told about the In- 
dians and the furs that could be purchased from them 
for little or nothing. When the Dutch people learned 
about the furs they were very anxious to establish 
trading posts in the new land. 

In 1614 a number of traders landed in New York, 
which they called New Amsterdam, in honor of their 
native land. These traders established trading posts 
along the Hudson from its mouth, as far north as where 
Albany now stands. The trading in furs was very 
profitable and natui'ally more and more traders came 
over from Holland. A company of these traders bought 
the island of Manhattan from the Indians for trinkets 
worth about twenty-four dollars. This island of Man- 
hattan is where the great city of New York now stands. 
This land is now worth far more than $2,400,000,000. 

All the first settlers in New York were traders. 
After awhile, though, an effort was made to get farm- 
ers to come over and settle there. To encourage the 
coming of farmers it was decided to give any person, 
who would settle fifty persons who would farm, a piece 
of land sixteen miles along a river bank. The head of 
one of these farming settlements was called a Patroon. 
In this way the rich land of New York valleys was per- 
manently settled. 

There were many Dutch Governors, but the best of 
them was Peter Stuyvesant. He conquered the Swedes 
in Delaware, made treaties of peace with the Indians 
and in many ways strengthened the colony. 



20 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

In 1664 the English, who controlled all the other 
colonies, decided to take New York away from the 
Dutch. A small fleet was sent over and it appeared be- 
fore New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. 
Peter Stuyvesant wanted to fight the English, but his 
people wouldn't help him, so the colony was surrendered 
to the English. 

The English king gave the colony to his brother, 
the Duke of York, who changed the name from New 
Amsterdam to New York, in honor of himself. The 
Dutch people were hard working and very saving. They 
made New York the leading colony for commerce and 
even today it leads all the other States in wealth and 
population. 

During the Revolutionary War the people of New 
York did their best to help win our independence. 



Pennsylvania 

LESSON 9 

Several of the colonies were settled in order to make 
homes for people who were persecuted on account of 
their religion. 

The Quakers were a peculiar religious sect. They 
called themselves Friends, but the other people called 
them Quakers. They did not beUeve in any title of no- 
bility. They did not even believe in "Mr." and "Mrs." 
They addressed each other using the word "friend." 
They were opposed to all kinds of war. If a person 
struck one of them on the cheek, he would turn and let 
him hit him on the other. The men kept their hats on 
even in the presence of the king. In their meeting 
houses or churches there were no priests or ministers. 
They would go to church, sit down, and wait until the 
spirit moved someone to speak. Nowadays when a 
company of people sit silent in a parlor someone is sure 
to call it a "Quaker's meeting." William Penn was one 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 21 

of the greatest leaders of the Quakers. He felt very 
sad to notice how his people were treated in England. 
At last he decided to establish a home for them in the 
New World. 

The King of England owed William Penn's father 
eight hundred pounds ($4,000) for services rendered 
as an English admiral. When his father died William 
Penn inherited this claim. The king did not have any 
money to spare. William Penn agreed to take land in 
the New World instead of the money. He was given 
what is now Pennsylvania. Although William Penn had 
bought and paid for the land he did not forget that the 
Indians were the real owners. 

When William Penn first came to the New World 
with a large company of Quakers, he bought the land 
a second time from the Indians and made a treaty of 
peace with them under a tree which is known as Penn's 
Treaty Tree. 

The Indians were so pleased with the gentle and 
honest ways of the Quakers that they said they would 
live in peace with the children of William Penn as long 
as the sun and moon would shine, or as many years as 
there were leaves on the trees. This treaty was kept 
because the Indians never shed a drop of Quaker blood. 
After the treaty was made with the Indians, the city of 
brotherly love, Philadelphia, was laid out and there the 
first settlement was made. The whole colony was called 
Pennsylvania, which means "Penn's woods." William 
Penn wanted to call it Sylvania, but the king added the 
word *Tenn" making it Pennsylvania. 

From the very beginning the Quakers prospered in 
their new homes. Every one of them worked hard and 
the Indians helped them all they could. Good laws were 
made for the government of the colony. People of all 
religions were free to come and settle there. At the 
time of the Revolutionary War, Pennsylvania was a rich 
and populous colony. While the people did not believe 
in war, they did what they could, because it was a 
struggle for liberty. They loaned money to carry on 



22 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the war, and, also, one of the wisest men of the time, 
Benjamin Franklin, made the colony his home. In con- 
clusion we may say that it is a good thing for this 
country that the Quakers settled in Pennsylvania. 



Rhode Island 

LESSON 10 

The early settlers in Massachusetts were very strict 
about their religion. They had left England because 
the people of the English Church had persecuted them. 
They had come to the New World to find a place where 
they could worship God as they pleased. While they 
wished to worship in their own way, they were so nar- 
row-minded that they would not let people of other 
rehgions do the same. They persecuted Quakers and 
Free Thinkers just the same as they had been perse- 
cuted themselves. These Puritans of Massachusetts 
passed laws requiring that a person living in the colony 
must go to church regularly, and that no one could 
vote there unless he was a member of the church. 

Among the settlers, who came in 1631, there was a 
young man named Roger Williams. This man was well 
educated and liberal-minded and so he was not allowed 
to say what he believed. He was such a good speaker 
that they made him minister of one of the churches. 
As a minister he felt that it was his duty to tell the 
people the truth. He said that people should be allowed 
to vote whether they belonged to a church or not ; that 
there should be freedom for all religions; that all the 
land belonged to the Indians and should not be taken 
without giving something in return. When the nar- 
row-minded leaders of Massachusetts learned that 
Roger Williams had said these things, they became very 
angry and charged Roger Williams with disloyalty and 
called him a heretic. When Roger Williams heard of 
the charge against him he knew that his enemies in- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 23 

tended to banish him or drive him from the colony. So 
he went away himself with a few companions into the 
wilderness. He was not afraid of the Indians. He be- 
lieved that they would treat him right, even if the Puri- 
tans would not. He was not mistaken — Massasoit and 
the other Indians gave him food and shelter. 

After a while he founded Providence Plantation, 
which was the first settlement in Rhode Island. In this 
settlement, like in Pennsylvania, every person was free 
to worship in whatever religion he liked. The Indians 
were paid for their land and the little colony prospered. 

A few years later another settlement, called Ports- 
mouth, was made by Anne Hutchinson, who was driven 
from Massachusetts, also on account of her religious 
belief. When they drove her away quite a number of 
her friends followed, and the settlement grew rapidly. 

When the Pequot Indian War broke out and the 
Indians made up their minds to destroy all the settle- 
ments of Massachusetts, Roger Williams showed that 
he could return good treatment for very bad treatment. 
He sent messages to the people of Massachusetts, warn- 
ing them of what the Pequots intended to do, and he 
risked his own life, going through the wilderness in the 
winter to the Council of Narragansetts, where he suc- 
ceeded in keeping that tribe from joining the Pequots, 
and thus saved Massachusetts from destruction. 

We owe a great deal to Roger Williams. He was 
the first man to fight for religious liberty in this coun- 
try. He was the first man to say that religion should 
have nothing to do with politics. His ideas have been 
adopted by all the people of our great country. Rhode 
Island is the smallest State, but if it had never done 
anything except to make a home for Roger Williams, 
every American should be proud of it. Roger Williams' 
ideas are the right ones for us all to follow — even today. 



24 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Maryland 

LESSON 11 

Maryland is another colony that was settled on ac- 
count of religious persecution. About the time of the 
settlement of the colonies the Catholics of England 
were persecuted severely. They were not allowed to 
have church service on account of their religion. Their 
children were not allowed to go to Catholic churches or 
schools. They were not allowed to own land or carry 
firearms of any description. One of their leaders was 
Lord Baltimore. Like William Penn, he made up his 
mind to found a home for his persecuted people in 
America. 

When he went to the King of England and explained 
to him what he intended to do, the king received him 
in a friendly manner and willingly granted him land 
south of Pennsylvania, on the shores of the Chesapeake 
Bay. This was very fine land for his colony, as the soil 
was rich and the climate warm. All he had to give the 
king for this was two arrows each year and a small 
part of the gold that was found. 

Before the colony was settled Lord Baltimore died, 
but his son carried out his father's plans. When they 
came to Maryland they treated the Indians kindly and 
made liberal laws for their government. One of the 
laws was that people of all religions should settle there 
in peace. The only trouble they had was with the peo- 
ple of Virginia, who claimed Maryland as a part of Vir- 
ginia. More than once they attacked the Marylanders 
and once captured the whole colony and made a law that 
no Catholic should live there. Fortunately the Virgin- 
ians did not remain in control long. They listened to 
the advice of their better men and stopped fighting 
Maryland. 

Maryland was named in honor of Mary, a Catholic 
queen of England. Lord Baltimore is remembered to 
this day by the beautiful city named Baltimore, which 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 25 

is about as large as San Francisco. On account of the 
rich soil and warm climate, Maryland increased rapidly 
in wealth and population. At the time of the Revolu- 
tionary War it was one of the strong colonies and the 
people helped all they could to win our independence. 



Connecticut 

LESSON 12 

While Connecticut does not stand out so promi- 
nently in its early history as several of the other colo- 
nies, still it is deserving of a short lesson. Its settle- 
ment began shortly after 1630. Stories had been told 
to the settlers of Massachusetts of the rich land in the 
Connecticut River Valley. It had also been told that 
the Pequot Indians, who lived there, were very war-like 
and did not like the white settlers. 

The thoughts of the good crops that could be raised 
in the Connecticut River Valley overcame the fear of 
the Indians, however. A large number of the colonists 
who were disappointed with the stony soil of Massa- 
chusetts went out to Connecticut and founded three 
small towns there. One of these towns was Hartford. 
From the beginning Connecticut settlements prospered, 
although there was always danger of Indian attacks 
and there was fear of the Dutch, too, as they claimed it. 
At last the Pequots declared war against the whites 
and all the settlements were attacked. Many homes 
were destroyed and many lives were lost. For a time 
it seemed as if the colony would be destroyed entirely 
by the Indians. It was in this Indian War that Roger 
Williams showed how to return good for evil. At the 
risk of his own life he kept the Narragansetts from 
joining the Pequots and thus saved not only Connecti- 
cut but all the other New England colonies. 

When the New England colonies formed a league 
their army punished the Pequots severely by killing 



26 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

many of them and destroying their villages. After- 
wards the Pequots were not able to do much harm. 

When there was no more fear of the Indians, Con- 
necticut increased rapidly in population and soon be- 
came one of the most important colonies. 

When Sir Edmund Andros, the tyrannical governor, 
who was appointed by the king to rule all the New Eng- 
land colonies, came to Connecticut and commanded the 
people to surrender their charter to him, they refused. 
While Sir Edmund Andros's proclamation was being 
read the men of Connecticut beat their drums and made 
a great uproar. During the confusion the charter was 
taken away and hidden in an old tree, which was known 
for many years afterwards as Charter Oak. The people 
of Connecticut never surrendered their rights to the 
tyrant. 

It was in Connecticut that one of our first great 
American colleges was established. It was called Yale 
College and is today one of the most advanced and 
largest colleges in the world. Harvard College is in 
Massachusetts. 

On account of the great struggle the people had 
with the Indians they became fearless in all respects. 
When the Revolutionary War came on they were anx- 
ious to fight. They left their work in the field and 
rushed to the scenes of war ready to give up everything 
for the sake of liberty. From among them came Gen- 
eral Israel Putnam and several other well-known great 
leaders. Connecticut always did her part and did it 
well. 

Georgia 

LESSON 13 

It is not necessary for us to study in detail about 
North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Delaware 
and New Hampshire. All we need to remember is that 
Delaware was settled by the Swedes, from whom it was 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 27 

taken by the Dutch and then the English took it from 
them. The Carohnas were settled by people of Vir- 
ginia. New Jersey and New Hampshire were settled 
mostly by the English people. 

Georgia is the last colony we have to study about. 
We have learned that Massachusetts was settled to 
make a home for persecuted Puritans, Pennsylvania 
for the Quakers, Maryland for the Catholics and Rhode 
Island for the people that the Puritans of Massachu- 
setts persecuted. All these people were persecuted on 
account of their religion. The first settlers of Georgia 
were persecuted in England, too, but not on account of 
religion. According to the old laws of England, if a 
man did not pay his debts he would be put into jail and 
kept there until some friend paid what he owed. Very 
few friends like to pay out their money without getting 
some security in return. These people in jail had no 
security to give and so they stayed in jail for years and 
years. The jails were full of them. James Oglethorpe, 
a member of Parliament, and a good-natured man, took 
pity upon the poor debtors locked in jail. He got a 
large number of friends to take an interest in helping 
them. He obtained a charter from the king for a tract 
of land in America, reaching from South Carolina to 
the Altamaha River. He paid the debts of many of the 
debtors, got them out of jail, and took them to the new 
colony, which he called Georgia, in honor of King 
George. In this way James Oglethorpe gave the debt- 
ors a chance to begin a new life in a new land and in a 
new way. 

The land and the climate of Georgia were very good 
and the colonists there should have prospered, but they 
did not want to work. Besides, they were bothered a 
great deal by the Spaniards, who lived in Florida. 

After a while the people of Georgia learned how to 
work and they got negro slaves to help them. They 
raised big crops of cotton and com. Before the Revo- 
lutionary War came on they had become prosperous and 
did their part to win our independence. 



28 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The French in North America 

LESSON 14 

The French people were very active in exploration 
and settlement in North America during colonial times. 

For convenience we might place their claims under 
three names. The first was New France, which in- 
cluded all the valley of the St. Lawrence River. The 
second was Acadia, which included Nova Scotia and a 
part of Maine. The third was Louisiana, which in- 
cluded all the land drained by the Mississippi River and 
its branches. If France had been able to hold all the 
territory included under these three names, she would 
have been richer and stronger than any other Euro- 
pean country. 

The reason why the French explorers were able to 
get control of all this land ahead of the other explor- 
ers is this. The French people were great fur traders ; 
having no fear of the Indians, they went far into the 
interior in their search for furs. The fur traders were 
obliged to make friends of the Indians in order to get 
their trade. They learned the Indian language, lived 
with them, fought their enemies and many of them 
married Indian women. 

In addition to fur trading as a means of making 
friends of the Indians, there were missionaries among 
the French explorers. These missionaries went among 
the Indians, taught them the French language and bap- 
tized a great many of them. 

So you can see that the Indians had good reason to 
be friendly to the French, while there was no reason 
why they should be friendly to the English, who never 
went among them except to get their land or to kill 
them. 

Three of the most noted French explorers are Cham- 
plain, who explored the St. Lawrence Valley and dis- 
covered Lake Champlain; Father Marquette, who ex- 
plored the Great Lakes and started on the way to the 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 29 

Mississippi ; and La Salle, who completed Father Mar- 
quette's work by going down the Mississippi River to 
its mouth and even to the shore of Texas. 

La Salle was the greatest of the French explorers. 
He went through terrible hardships for the glory of 
France and in the end he was killed by one of his 
treacherous followers. 

Although the French lost all their land in North 
America, traces of their work remain to this day. In 
our own country the names **St. Louis" and "New Or- 
leans" will always remind us of the French. In the 
St. Lawrence Valley the people still talk French, and 
as long as we read Longfellow's ^'Evangeline" we will 
always be reminded that the French once lived in 
Acadia, which is now called Nova Scotia. 



The Struggle for the Ownership of the 
Mississippi Valley 

LESSON 15 

This was the first bitter and bloody struggle in 
North America. The prize was the great Mississippi 
Valley, which is the best land in the world and now 
contains millions of prosperous and happy people. 

The English people claimed this land ; first, because 
John Cabot had discovered all of North America, five 
years after Columbus made his famous voyage. They 
also claimed the valley because, when the colonies ob- 
tained their charters from the king, they were granted 
the land from sea to sea, that is, from the Atlantic 
Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. 

The French claimed the Mississippi Valley because 
John Verrazani had explored North America along the 
coast at an early date. They also claimed the valley 
on account of the explorations of Father Marquette and 
the great La Salle. 



30 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

It is plain to be seen that both the French and the 
EngHsh were justified in claiming the Mississippi 
Valley. 

The French were the first to see the great value of 
the disputed land and they lost no time in making good 
their claims. They built a chain of forts from Canada 
to New Orleans to keep the English away. We will 
call to mind only one of these forts, and that is Fort 
Duquesne, which was situated where Pittsburg now 
stands. In addition to building the chain of forts, the 
French encouraged the Indians to oppose the English 
along the frontier. 

When the thirteen colonies began to fill up with 
people, it was quite natural for the enterprising set- 
tlers to think of crossing the Appalachian Mountains 
and starting new homes for themselves. You may be 
sure these settlers received no encouragement from 
the French. Both the French and the Indians pursued 
them. 

It was natural for the French and the English to 
hate each other as they did. It was natural because the 
French and the English were rivals in Europe; they 
were also rivals for the fur trade in America, and, be- 
sides, the French were Catholics and the English were 
Protestants. The French people were so different to 
the English people that it was impossible for them to 
be friends. 



The Wars Between the French and 
English 

LESSON 16 

The struggle between the French and the English 
for the control of North America was long and bitter. 
It began in 1690 and did not end until 1763. During 
this time four wars were fought and they are known 
in history as King William's War, Queen Anne's War, 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 31 

King George's War, and the last, by far the most im- 
portant, the French and Indian War. 

The first three of these wars were started on ac- 
count of troubles in Europe. During each of them the 
colonists in America sympathized with their mother 
lands and made war here. The Americans captured 
Acadia and the strong fort called Louisburg, but when 
each of these three wars was over and the treaty of 
peace was signed there was no gain nor loss worth 
mentioning on either side and neither side was sat- 
isfied. 

About 1750 the French were getting very bold in 
the Mississippi Valley. They were building more and 
more forts and urging the Indians to drive back the 
English, who were coming across the Appalachian 
Mountains. Just about this time the English colonists 
of Virginia made up their minds to check the French 
and order them away from the land they called their 
own. 

When Governor Dinwiddie was asked to send a mes- 
senger to the French at Fort Duquesne to tell them 
that was English territory, he decided that George 
Washington, then a young man, was the best person 
to perform this important duty. 

George Washington, with a few companions, started 
out at once. He made his way through the wilderness, 
reached the French camp, where he was received cour- 
teously, and delivered his message. While the French 
were polite to him, they would not tell him what they 
were going to do, except to say that they had their 
orders from France and would obey them. Washing- 
ton had a hard time getting back to Virginia. He was 
shot at by Indians and in crossing a stream on a raft 
he slipped and fell off and nearly drowned in the icy 
water, but, after all, he brought the news back to Gov- 
ernor Dinwiddie that the French would never leave the 
disputed territory until they were driven out. 

The English colonists immediately began to prepare 
for war. In all the cities and towns companies of sol- 



32 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

diers were formed. The English government ordered 
an army under General Braddock sent over to help the 
colonists. You may be sure that the French were just 
as active as the English. There was great excitement 
on both sides. Everyone knew that this war would 
decide whether the English or the French would rule 
in America. 



The First Half of the French and Indian 

War 

LESSON 17 

When you are studying about this war always re- 
member that it was not one of the wars of our country, 
because it took place before the United States was a 
country. But be sure to remember that it was the most 
important war between the English and the French 
colonists. 

At the beginning of the French and Indian War 
there was great excitement on both sides, but espe- 
cially on the English side. The English were deter- 
mined to drive the French from North America. Each 
of the colonies formed companies of soldiers and pro- 
vided them with arms and ammunition. Virginia took 
the lead and Washington was placed in command of her 
soldiers. 

In command of a small company, Washington 
marched to the neighborhood of Fort Duquesne. It 
was his plan to see if the French could not be induced 
to leave that territory, but the French were firm and 
would not move. When Washington found that the 
French would not go away, he built a fort which he 
called Fort Necessity. In this fort Washington re- 
mained for a short time, but the French and the In- 
dians surrounded him in such large numbers that he 
was compelled to withdraw from it. Then he went back 
to Virginia with his soldiers. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 33 

About this time General Braddock arrived from 
England with a fine, large English army. Then there 
was great excitement again. Everybody expected 
Braddock and his army would whip the French in a 
few months. Braddock expected to do so himself, but 
Washington was not so sure. It was resolved that 
General Braddock and his army and Washington and 
the colonial soldiers should all march together to Fort 
Duquesne once more and capture the place at once. The 
army started out very bravely, with colors flying and 
bands playing. It looked as though they could conquer 
anything, and Braddock was so proud and vain that he 
thought so, too. Washington knew how the French and 
Indians fought. He told General Braddock about them 
and begged him to be careful. General Braddock 
laughed at Washington and said : "The idea of a young 
colonial soldier like you giving advice to a veteran old 
general like me. If you are afraid, remember that I 
am not." 

Naturally, Washington, the young soldier, said no 
more, because in war you must respect your superior 
officer. 

So the army marched on, heedless of the danger. 
When they were within a few miles of Fort Duquesne 
they were suddenly alarmed by the awful war whoop 
of great numbers of Indians and French. Braddock 
halted his army and looked for the enemy, but could 
see none because they were hidden behind trees. After 
the war whoop, the firing of bullets by the French and 
Indians began and continued with such effect that a 
great many of the English were killed. The few sol- 
diers that were left were saved by the wisdom of 
George Washington, who told them to get behind trees 
and fight like the French and Indians had been fighting. 

When Washington took what was left of the army 
back to Virginia, there was great discouragement, you 
may be sure. 



34 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

During the first part of the French and Indian 
War all of the campaigns of the English were about 
as bad as that of Braddock. The French remained 
masters everywhere. 



Second Half of the French and Indian 

War 

LESSON 18 

As you have learned in the previous lesson, the 
first half of the French and Indian War was a long 
series of failures and defeats for the English. Under 
the wise management of the great Marquis de Mont- 
calm, the French won victory after victory, and it 
seemed that they would be able to hold all the valuable 
territory that they claimed. 

The chief reason for the failure of the English was 
a weak Prime Minister in England and poor generals, 
chosen by him, in America. The common soldiers were 
not to blame. They had done the best they could. 

At last the people of England, becoming disgusted 
on account of so many failures, demanded the appoint- 
ment of a Prime Minister who had brains and energy 
enough to accom.plish something. In response to this 
demand, the Prime Minister was dismissed and the fa- 
mous William Pitt was appointed in his place. 

Just as soon as William Pitt began to manage af- 
fairs, things changed in America. The weak generals 
were removed and their places were filled by brave, 
young and strong generals like General James Wolfe. 

The Marquis de Montcalm recognized this change 
as soon as any one. He saw that now the French 
would have to fight hard to hold their own, and they 
did fight hard. 

In spite of the hard fighting of the French, the Eng- 
lish began to win. Fort Duquesne and several other 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 35 

important forts were captured and occupied by the 
English. 

Finally the French held only one important fort, 
and that was Quebec, the strongest of them all. The 
fortress of Quebec was situated upon a high cliff over- 
looking the St. Lawrence River and was said to be the 
strongest fort in North America. Upon the bluff and 
behind the fort was a piece of level land known as the 
Heights of Abraham. It was General Wolfe's task to 
capture Quebec and it was the Marquis de Montcalm's 
fate to defend it. The French did not believe that the 
English would try to climb the bluff, but after study- 
ing the situation very carefully General Wolfe decided 
that was the only way for the English to capture 
Quebec. So he embarked his army in boats, went up 
the St. Lawrence River, landed his men, found a place 
where they could climb the bluff and before the French 
were aware of what he was doing he and his army were 
on the Heights of Abraham. 

When the Marquis de Montcalm saw the English on 
the Heights he knew that he had been out-generaled, 
but he was brave and he marched his army out of the 
fortress to fight the English. When the two armies 
met, a terrible battle followed. Both the English and 
the French fought bravely and without fear. Wolfe 
and Montcalm directed their efforts. In the end the 
English won the victory. General Wolfe was mortally 
wounded and while they were carrying him to a place 
of safety he heard somebody cry, ''They run," and upon 
asking who it was that was running he was told, "The 
French." Then he said, "I can die happy." 

Montcalm was also mortally wounded and when the 
surgeon told him that he could not live more than a few 
hours he said, "So much the better; I shall not live to 
see the surrender of Quebec." 

Thus ended the French and Indian War, with vic- 
tory for the English. In the next lesson we will con- 
sider the results of that victory. 



36 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Results of the French and Indian War 

LESSON 19 

The Battle of Quebec ended the French and Indian 
War and also decided that the English flag should wave 
in triumph over all the disputed land in North Amer- 
ica. The power of the French was completely broken, 
but evidence of their work remains even to this day. 
Many of the people of Canada still speak the French 
language and French manners and customs prevail in 
many places. 

By the treaty of peace, which ended the French and 
Indian War, which was made in 1763, twelve years be- 
fore the beginning of the Revolutionary War, it was 
agreed by statesmen of both France and England that 
France should give up her claim to all of Canada and 
to all the land east of the Mississippi River. The land 
west of the Mississippi was given to Spain. The Eng- 
lish, having captured Havana during the war, Spain 
was obliged to give up Florida in order to get Havana 
back. 

In the course of later years France again obtained 
possession of the land west of the Mississippi, and 
Spain once more controlled Florida. 

When the treaty of peace was made and England, 
through the wisdom of William Pitt, gained so much 
territory, there was great joy in England. The Eng- 
lish people had good reason then to believe that there 
was no other nation in the world so strong as theirs. 
Never once did they think that their great victory was 
going to bring about their greatest loss. 

The French and Indian War, which had lasted a long 
time, had cost a great deal of money. In order to get 
this money the English government had gone into debt. 
The members of Parliament had to find ways to pay this 
debt. Naturally they thought that since the thirteen 
colonies had profited by the war they should pay for it. 
So Parliament passed laws such as the Navigation 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 37 

Laws, which required that all American goods should 
be shipped in English ships and sold in English ports. 

The people of the thirteen colonies did not Hke the 
Navigation Laws and claimed that Parliament had no 
right to interfere with their trade because the colonists 
were not represented in Parliament. 

Later, Parliament passed other laws such as the Tea 
Tax and the Paper Tax, which were even more hateful 
to the colonists than the Navigation Laws. 

The colonists, wishing to remain friendly with the 
mother country, sent letters and petitions to the king 
and Parliament, begging them not to tax them with- 
out giving them representation in Parliament. The 
colonists declared that taxation without representation 
is tyranny. 

The feeling gradually became more and more bitter 
between the English people and the colonists, until at 
last they were both anxious for war. So you can see 
that the French and Indian War helped to bring about 
the struggle for our independence. 



The Cause of the Revolution 

LESSON 20 

When we are asked to give the cause of the Revo- 
lutionary War we may say that the cause was "taxation 
without representation." 

This taxation is shown by the English Parliament 
passing such laws as the Navigation Acts, the Stamp 
Act, the Townshend Acts, and the Tea Tax, compelling 
the colonists to pay taxes. 

We have already learned that the English people 
thought it was right to tax the Americans in order to 
help pay the debts caused by the French and Indian 
War. 

All the Americans were opposed to paying any tax 
that was placed upon them. They felt that they had 



38 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

expenses enough of their own without paying Eng- 
land's debts and, besides, they were not represented in 
Parhament. 

Instead of obeying the Navigation Acts, they be- 
came smugglers and smuggled goods into and out of 
the colonies. Instead of obeying the Stamp Act, that 
compelled them to put stamps upon all their papers, 
they concluded to get along without papers. Instead 
of paying the tax on tea, they decided not to use tea, 
much as they liked it. 

The tea that was sent over was received in some 
ports, where it was stored in damp cellars and allowed 
to spoil. In Boston they had the famous Boston Tea 
Party over it. There a company of young men dis- 
guised as Indians went aboard the tea ship at night 
and threw all the chests of tea into the sea. 

The Boston Tea Party made the members of Parlia- 
ment very angry and to punish Boston and her people 
the Boston Port Bill was passed. This bill closed the 
port of Boston against all shipping. This was a hard 
blow to the merchants and all the people of Boston and 
made them feel very bitter toward the mother country. 

You may be sure the Americans were not still at 
this time. Meetings were held in every colony to com- 
plain against the treatment that England was giving 
them. 

Great orators like Samuel Adams of Massachusetts 
and Patrick Henry of Virginia made eloquent speeches 
against England's ideas of taxing the colonists. These 
speeches let the Americans know their rights and 
stirred them up to stand firm against England. 

The Americans were not afraid of the English reg- 
ular soldiers, because they had fought with them in 
the French and Indian War and the Americans knew 
that they were just as brave, if not braver, than the 
English soldiers. 

As if to stir up the bitterness among the Ameri- 
cans still more, the English government sent English 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 39 

soldiers over to the colonies to compel the people to 
obey the unjust tax laws. 

The Americans did not want to fight their mother 
country, but they organized companies of soldiers called 
Minute Men, who promised to be ready to go to war at 
a minute's notice. 



The Beginning of the Revolutionary War 

LESSON 21 

The Revolutionary War is the most important of 
all wars to us because it is the one that gave us our 
freedom. It also gave to the world the greatest and 
best country, the country in which all men and all 
women have an opportunity to do what is right in their 
own way. 

In the previous lessons we have learned that the 
English government sent soldiers to the colonies to 
make them obey the laws. We learned also that the 
Americans had organized military companies called 
"Minute Men," who were ready to go to war at a min- 
ute's notice. Every American in the vicinity of Boston 
was anxious to become a "Minute Man." Young men, 
old men, and even boys, joined, all anxious to fight the 
red coats. 

This was the condition of affairs when General 
Gage, the English general stationed at Boston, heard 
that the Americans were gathering ammunition at 
Concord. He resolved to send a company of soldiers to 
destroy it. Of course, the Americans were on the look- 
out for just such a move. They did not know whether 
the British would go by land or by sea. You have 
learned in Mr. Longfellow's poem how Paul Revere rode 
through the country telling all the Minute Men that the 
British were going to go by land. There was great ex- 
citement that day. 



40 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The first British company met a band of Americans 
at Lexington bridge. The British officer cried out to 
them: ^'Disperse, ye rebels." When the Americans 
did not disperse, as they were ordered, the British fired 
upon them and several were killed. This firing upon the 
Americans at Lexington was the beginning of the Rev- 
olutionary War and it has been called "the shot that 
was heard around the world." 

Leaving Lexington the British marched on to Con- 
cord, where they destroyed whatever was left of the 
American military stores, but they had to pay dearly 
for what they did. By the time they were marching 
back to Boston the ''Minute Men" had gathered in large 
numbers and were stationed along the road. With their 
old flint locks, from behind trees and garden walls, they 
fired upon the British with such telling effect that hun- 
dreds of the red coats fell in their tracks and all of them 
would have been killed or captured if General Gage had 
not sent out more soldiers to meet and protect those 
who were on the road. This fight on the road between 
Concord and Boston is called the Battle of Concord and 
was a victory for the Americans. 

The Battle of Bunker Hill 

LESSON 22 

After the Americans had done so well in fighting the 
British along the Concord Road, they were filled with 
enthusiasm. They were still more encouraged by their 
success in capturing Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown 
Point, which gave them control of all of the Canadian 
boundary and, what was more useful to them, by cap- 
turing these forts they got 200 cannons and a large 
supply of ammunition. Ethan Allen was the hero of 
the capture of Ticonderoga. He took the British by 
surprise and when he demanded their surrender they 
asked, "By whose authority?" He replied, "By the au- 
thority of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Con- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 41 

gress." The British hardly knew what he meant, but 
they surrendered. 

The Battle of Bunker Hill was one of the most im- 
portant battles of the Revolutionary War. A great 
many regular British soldiers had gathered in the city 
of Boston. There were no less than 10,000 of them. 
The three British generals — Gage, Howe and Clinton — 
were there also. They were consulting as to what 
would be the best to do. At last they decided to for- 
tify the hill back of Charlestown, which was very near 
Boston. The Americans learned what they were going 
to do and one night 1200 Americans marched to the 
hill and fortified it before the British arrived. The 
Americans carried out their plan, but by some mistake 
fortified Breed's Hill and missed Bunker's Hill. Still 
the battle that followed is called the Battle of Bunker 
Hill. It was fought on June 17, 1775, and ever since we 
celebrate June 17 as Bunker Hill Day. 

When day dawned, that beautiful summer day of 
June 17, 1775, the British were greatly surprised to see 
the Americans planted on Breed's Hill. There was 
nothing for the British to do except to drive them away. 
By going up behind them the British could have suc- 
ceeded easily, but instead General Gage ordered 3000 
soldiers to march directly in front of the Americans 
and drive them from their position. 

General Putnam and Colonel Prescott, who were in 
charge of the Americans, saw the British marching up 
the hill in regular order. They told the Americans to 
keep cool and reserve their fire until they could see the 
whites of the British soldiers' eyes. When the British 
were very close the Americans fired with such fatal 
effect that the British lines were broken and they were 
forced to retreat down the hill in disorder. 

The British were brave, too. Their officers rallied 
them and marched them against the Americans a sec- 
ond time and again the Americans reserved their fire 
until the British were about two rods away and then 



42 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

fired, causing the British to break and retreat for the 
second time. 

Still the British were brave and believed in trying 
again. They marched up the hill for the third time. 
This time there was no fire from the Americans. All 
the ammunition was gone. They had nothing to fight 
with except their empty muskets, which they used as 
clubs. Gradually but surely the British drove them 
from their breastworks and thus the Americans lost the 
Battle of Bunker Hill. 

Dr. Warren, who was fighting as a private, lost his 
life in the Battle of Bunker Hill. This death was a 
great loss to the Americans because Warren was one 
of their best men. 

The Battle of Bunker Hill proved to all the world 
that the Americans were cool and brave fighters and 
that all they needed was ammunition. This battle 
proved to England that before she could conquer the 
colonists or the Americans, a hard struggle must take 
place. 



George Washington Became Commander 
in Chief 

LESSON 23 

George Washington was the first commander-in- 
chief of the American Army. He was appointed to this 
important position by the Continental Congress. He 
was on his way from his home in West Moreland 
County, Virginia, to Boston when the Battle of Bunker 
Hill took place. When he heard the story of how well 
the Americans fought the red coats he was well pleased 
and said that the liberty of the people was safe. Wash- 
ington arrived in Boston, July 2d, and took command 
of the army at Cambridge on July 3, 1775. 

The Americans were overjoyed to have Washing- 
ton appointed commander-in-chief. They knew that he 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 43 

was the man who had ordered the French to leave the 
Mississippi Valley and that he was the cool-headed of- 
ficer who had saved the remnants of Braddock's army. 
Everybody believed that he was the best man for the 
place. 

The Continental Congress promised to provide 
Washington with an army of 20,000 men. Washington 
found about 14,000, and such an army! The soldiers 
had neither arms nor ammunition. They were dressed 
as they came from the workshops and farms. They 
did not know what discipline was. They were all willing 
to fight, but knew nothing about prompt obedience such 
as a soldier must know. So it was Washington's first 
hard work to organize his army. He had to find offi- 
cers, provide food, clothing, firearms and ammunition 
for the army. Besides this he had to train the soldiers 
so that they would know how to obey the commands of 
their officers. To do all this took a long time and people 
began to complain that Washington ought to do some- 
thing. These complaints hurt Washington, but he 
never said a word, but kept on improving his army. 
In March, 1776, eight months after Washington took 
command, the army was in a condition to fight. Siege 
guns had been hauled on sleds over the snow from Ti- 
conderoga. With these guns it was decided to attack 
the British in Boston, who were now under command 
of General Howe. 

The Americans fortified Dorchester Heights, which 
overlooked Boston. On these heights the siege guns 
were placed. When General Howe saw the Americans 
on the heights he knew that he had been out-generaled. 
At first he thought that he would attack the Americans, 
but he remembered what happened at Bunker Hill and 
he changed his mind. He asked Washington to allow 
him and his men to depart in peace. He said that if 
the Americans would not let him do this he would burn 
the city of Boston. 

Washington consented to let Howe and his army go 
and they went away. Thus Boston fell into the hands 



44 FORWAD LOOKING LESSONS 

of the Americans and there was great rejoicing 
throughout the colonies. 



The Continental Congress 

LESSON 24 

In the management of affairs of a civilized nation it 
is always necessary to have a governing body of law- 
makers. This body is composed of representatives 
from all parts of the country. They control everything, 
including the army. The first governing body of the 
Thirteen Colonies was called the Continental Congress, 
and met in Philadelphia, in 1774, for the purpose of 
trying, by means of petitions, to get the king and Par- 
liament to be more reasonable in their treatment of the 
colonists. This Congress asked Parliament to reduce 
the taxes and give the colonists the same rights as the 
people of Great Britain enjoyed. The first Continental 
Congress was made up of the best men from the colo- 
nies. They asked for nothing but what was right. Very 
little attention was paid to them. When they adjourned 
they agreed to meet in 1775 at the same place. When 
the time of the second meeting arrived, war had al- 
ready begun between Great Britain and the colonies. 
Lexington and Concord battles had been fought. So 
there was much to be done at the second meeting of the 
Continental Congress. It was necessary to provide for 
the war, that could not be avoided. An army must be 
raised and supplied with arms and ammunition. A 
commander-in-chief and other officers had to be ap- 
pointed. George Washington was appointed com- 
mander-in-chief. Congress tried to supply an army for 
him. There was no great success because Congress 
could not get enough money to pay the expenses. There 
was so much trouble that Congress was in session 
nearly all the time. For a long time, even while the 
fighting was going on, it was still hoped that the trouble 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 45 

with the mother country would be settled and that the 
affairs would go on in peace, the same as before. This 
was the hope until July 4, 1776, when the Continental 
Congress passed a resolution declaring "that these colo- 
nies are and of right ought to be free and independent." 
This resolution severed the bonds that joined the colo- 
nies to their mother country. It changed the Thirteen 
Colonies into a new nation, which is known to this day 
as the United States of America. There was great joy 
when the news of the Declaration of Independence 
reached the people. Then they had their first Fourth of 
July celebration. 

Bonfires were blazing, cannons boomed, orators 
spoke, and liberty bells rang in every town. The people 
went wild over their freedom. In order to give the 
world the reasons for the change of the colonies to a 
nation, Thomas Jefferson and other members were ap- 
pointed to write a declaration containing reasons for 
the change. The result of Thomas Jefferson's efforts in 
this respect is the famous Declaration of Independence, 
which we are proud of to this day. At this time there 
was no constitution or supreme laws to control and 
direct Congress in its actions. In the place of the su- 
preme law Congress adopted the Articles of Confedera- 
tion. Those articles controlled the country, in a weak 
way, until our present constitution was adopted. 



Campaign Around New York City 

LESSON 25 

When the British were forced to leave Boston, the 
Americans occupied the place and felt very much en- 
couraged. Having secured Boston, the next move, 
Washington thought, was to take possession of the 
great city of New York and hold it against the British. 
It was easy to get control of New York City, because 
there were no British soldiers stationed there. But it 



46 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

was not easy to hold it, because there was a great many 
of the people of New York City, called Tories, Ameri- 
cans, who favored the British side. Washington took 
the city and with an army of 18,000 men he decided to 
fortify Brooklyn Heights in order to hold it against 
British attacks. The British had no intention of let- 
ting the Americans hold New York without a struggle. 
They wanted to keep their Tories on their side. So 
General Howe was sent with a large army to attack 
Washington and a British fleet was sent into New York 
Harbor to assist in the attack. In the first battle the 
Americans were defeated and over 1,000 of them were 
captured. This was discouraging, and Washington felt 
that he must escape with his men from Brooklyn 
Heights across to New York City or be completely sur- 
rounded and compelled to surrender. To get across the 
water from Long Island to New York City was a dan- 
gerous undertaking, at that time, because the British 
fleet was in the harbor. 

Good luck favored Washington. A dense fog came 
on and in the darkness of that fog Washington and his 
army crossed unharmed. As soon as the British dis- 
covered he was in New York City they pursued him and 
he went up the Hudson River to a place called White 
Plains, where he met another defeat and the Americans 
were forced to retreat in a hurry. General Howe 
thought that now only a crushing blow, to destroy the 
Americans, was necessary. So he sent General Com- 
wallis, one of his best officers, with a strong force to 
capture Washington and his army. 

Washington knew now that his only hope was to 
get across New Jersey ahead of the British. Wash- 
ington's army was too weak and broken-hearted to risk 
a battle. The retreat of the Americans across New 
Jersey was so well managed that the British, with all 
their fine soldiers and excellent war gear, were disap- 
pointed every time. The "Sly Fox,'' as they called 
Washington, escaped at every turn. Even he, however, 
felt relieved when the long race was over and the Amer- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 47 

ican army crossed the Delaware River and landed safe 
in Pennsylvania. 

Washington Wins Battle of Trenton and 
Restores Confidence 

LESSON 26 

Washington's loss of the City of New York and of 
his being compelled to retreat, in a hurry, across New 
Jersey was caused by General Lee, a vain and foolish 
man who would not obey Washington. 

General Lee was not an American, but came from 
Europe to give his assistance. He was older than 
Washington and in his vanity thought that he knew 
more. When Washington ordered him to cross a river 
to a certain point with his division of 1000 men, he 
failed to do so. It was thus through Lee's disobedience 
that Washington had to make his famous retreat across 
New Jersey in order to save his army. Whenever a 
great leader, like Washington, meets with defeat and 
is forced to retreat the people lose confidence in him. 
Often times many of the soldiers desert and go home, 
and so it was with Washington. His army was daily 
growing smaller. After all the desertions, he had less 
than 7000 soldiers remaining and many of these were 
discontented. 

Washington plainly saw that it was necessary for 
him to strike a thrilling blow or his army would go to 
pieces entirely. It was in the middle of the winter and 
was so cold that the Delaware was filled with blocks of 
ice. Across that river were the Hessians, more than a 
thousand of them, encamped in comfortable quarters. 
These Hessians were German soldiers hired by England 
to fight the Americans. They had heard how badly off 
the Americans were and had no fear of them. 

On Christmas night Washington decided to surprise 
the Hessians. He knew their habits. He knew they 
would be drinking and having a good time on Christmas 



48 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

night. So while they were enjoying themselves Wash- 
ington and his army crossed the Delaware in boats and 
completely surprised the Hessians. Before they knew 
what was happening, 1000 of them were captured. Be- 
fore Cornwallis could come to attack Washington, he 
succeded in getting his prisoners across the river. This 
is called the "Battle of Trenton" and did a great deal to 
cheer the Americans when all things looked black. 

In these campaigns around New York and New Jer- 
sey, where Washington had so much trouble with Gen- 
eral Lee, he became acquainted with a man named Alex- 
ander Hamilton. Hamilton was only about twenty years 
old. Yet, young as he was, he did more than any other 
person to help Washington in those dark days and those 
that followed. 



The Battle of Quebec 

LESSON 27 

General Arnold and General Montgomery started 
out with their army from northern New York. It was 
winter time and the ground was covered with snow. 
They had to go across Maine through the dense forests 
of pine trees. On this march the soldiers suffered much 
hardship on account of the extreme cold. They lacked 
proper food and clothing. At last they reached Canada 
and the army was formed into two divisions — one under 
Montgomery, the other under Arnold. Montgomery was 
to capture Montreal. Montgomery succeeded and 
marched on to help Arnold capture Quebec, which as 
we have already learned was the strongest fort in 
America. Arnold and Montgomery met in the center of 
Quebec. The night was dark and the snow was falling. 
Arnold and Montgomery led their men, with matchless 
bravery, up those steep bluffs that lead to the Heights 
of Abraham, shouting, "Now on, my boys — one more 
blow and Quebec is ours !" 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 49 

The men were travel worn, but they would follow 
such leaders anywhere. In the fight the brave Mont- 
gomery was mortally wounded, and Arnold, who was 
just as brave, was badly wounded. The leadership then 
fell to General Morgan, but the men were discouraged 
on account of their losses, especially of their leaders, 
and they failed to capture Quebec. They had to retreat 
to a place of safety, where they concluded to remain 
until the arrival of reinforcements. The smallpox, a 
terrible disease, broke out in their ranks and many of 
them died. So we may say, in conclusion, that the at- 
tempt to capture Quebec was a sad failure. 

Philadelphia Falls Into the Hands of the 

British 

LESSON 28 

The latter part of 1776 and the first part of 1777 
were discouraging times for the Americans. They had 
lost New York City. Montgomery and Arnold had 
failed to capture Quebec and now the British resolved 
to take Philadelphia. General Lee, the man who had 
disobeyed Washington and who was now a prisoner, 
proved himself a traitor by advising General Howe to 
capture Philadelphia. 

In the Battle of Brandywine, the famous French 
general, Lafayette, distinguished himself trying to save 
the day for the Americans. After the Battle of Brandy- 
wine the British marched on to Philadelphia. 

Washington gathered his shattered army together 
again as best he could and opposed the British a second 
time at Germantown. There the two armies fought a 
second battle, which resulted in another defeat for the 
Americans, who were now so badly off that they dared 
not remain in the pathway of the British. There being 
no more opposition, the British marched on to Phila- 
delphia, which fell into their hands quite willingly. The 
rich Tories, who lived there, were glad to have the Brit- 



50 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

ish take possession. At balls and parties the Philadel- 
phians had jolly times with the British officers during 
that season. These Tories thought that the war was 
over and that Washington was whipped, but they were 
sadly mistaken. 



Turning Point of the Revolution 

LESSON 29 

In the spring of 1777, while Washington was meet- 
ing with so many reverses in the neighborhood of Phila- 
delphia, the British were very busy in Canada. 

General John Burgoyne, who was the British com- 
mander, organized a force of seven thousand men com- 
posed of the British, Hessians, Tories and Indians. 
With this force he intended to march southward and 
join the forces of Clinton and Howe at New York City. 
If he had done this the New England Colonies would 
have been cut off from the other colonies and the plan 
of American operations would have been broken up. 

General Burgoyne and his army started out from 
Canada in great hopes of success. They felt that there 
was no American army to oppose them. They knew 
that Washington could spare no great army to go 
against them. Burgoyne first attacked Ticonderoga, 
which he captured very easily. He then marched into 
the northern part of New York State, where many 
farmers lived. When the farmers heard that he was 
coming they gathered from near and far as the ''Min- 
ute Men" had done when the British were marching to 
Concord. In addition to the farmers, Arnold's men, re- 
turning from the attack on Quebec, and also the ''Green 
Mountain Boys," gathered to help oppose Burgoyne. 
Altogether there was quite a large number of Ameri- 
cans to oppose Burgoyne. They were under the com- 
mand of General Schuyler, General Arnold, General 
Morgan and General Stark. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 51 

The Americans were bitter enough against the Brit- 
ish on account of the invasion, but this bitterness was 
increased over the death of a beautiful American girl, 
who was killed by one of Burgoyne's Indians. Every 
American was ready to fight the British to his death. 

General Schuyler kept the fighting off as long as he 
could, because the longer he waited the stronger his 
army became. Troops of American soldiers were com- 
ing in every day, so he retreated slowly in front of the 
British army. The country they were passing through 
was swampy and forest clad. The Americans knew the 
country and the British did not. The Americans de- 
stroyed the bridges and cut down many trees so that 
they fell across the roads, in order to make them dif- 
ficult to pass for the British. So General Burgoyne 
and his army were able to go only one mile a day, there 
were so many obstacles in their way. Finally the Brit- 
ish were very short of provisions and the Americans 
had gathered big stores of food at a place called Ben- 
nington. The British made up their minds to capture 
this place and get the food. The Americans were de- 
termined that the British should not get it. The Ameri- 
cans were quite strong by this time. At Bennington, 
before the fight began, Colonel Stark said to his men: 
*Tf we do not win the fight today, Betty Stark is a 
widow." Every American felt about the same and of 
course they won. The British were forced to retreat in 
haste. On October 17, 1776, Burgoyne and his British 
army were forced to surrender at Saratoga. General 
Horatio Gates claimed the honor of this American vic- 
tory, but it belonged to General Schuyler and others. 



Suflf ering at Valley Forge 

LESSON 30 

While the British and the Tories were having such 
jolly times in Philadelphia, enjoying plenty of every- 
thing, George Washington and his defeated army suf- 



52 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

fered at Valley Forge. Words cannot tell how badly 
the Americans suffered that winter of 1777-1778. 

The soldiers were in rags and they were without 
shoes and blankets. It has been said of them that they 
could be tracked by their bloody footprints on the snow. 
This shows how much they needed shoes. Besides, 
very often there was nothing for them to eat. They 
built miserable huts to protect themselves from the 
storms of winter. Behind one of these the great- 
hearted Washington was found, one day, down on his 
knees, in the snow, praying to God to help his suffering 
soldiers. 

When the Americans were in such great need of 
everything, agents of the British tried to tempt them 
to desert by offering them gold. These agents offered 
General James Read $10,000 if he would desert Wash- 
ington. He considered the offer an insult and gave this 
reply to the agents: '1 am a poor man, but such as I 
am, the King of England is not ruch enough to buy 
me." Their belief in the right of Americans to be free 
and their faith in the ability of Washington kept the 
little army together. In spite of all their hardships 
they continued their drilling. Marquis de Lafayette, 
the Frenchman, and Baron Steuben, the German, both 
of whom had come over from Europe, were helping 
Washington all they could to train the soldiers how to 
fight. 

The darkest hour is just before the dawn. After 
the Americans captured Burgoyne's army, the French 
nation began to believe the Americans had a good 
chance to win their independence. While Washington 
and his army were suffering at Valley Forge, King 
Louis XVI was thinking of having revenge upon Eng- 
land by helping the Americans. Benjamin Franklin 
was in France, urging him to help the Americans. In 
February, 1778, he made a treaty, promising men, 
money, warships and ammunition to help the Ameri- 
cans. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 53 

The help from France was the answer to Washing- 
ton's prayers. It restored confidence at once and made 
the i^ericans feel sure of victory and independence. 
Not until the Great War took place did we pay our 
debt to France. She helped us and we helped her, when 
help was sorely needed. 

The Americans Regain Philadelphia and 

the Battle of Monmouth — 

Benedict Arnold 

LESSON 31 

When the British learned that the French were 
going to help the Americans, they decided to leave Phil- 
adelphia and make New York City the center of their 
operations. When they were moving toward New York 
City, Washington with his army attacked them at Mon- 
mouth. The Americans would have won a victory here 
if it had not been for the disobedience of General 
Charles Lee, who had been returned to the Americans 
by exchange of prisoners. He failed to bring up his 
soldiers to fight when Washington needed them and as 
a consequence the Battle of Monmouth was lost. 

Anyhow, this battle had the effect of a victory. The 
British gave up fighting in the north and Washington 
had an opportunity to improve his army and gather 
supplies, which he needed very much. 



General Benedict Arnold was one of the bravest of 
the Americans. He was not afraid of anything, but he 
was hot-headed and impulsive. He could not stand 
being corrected or reprimanded. We have learned how 
brave he was at the storming of Quebec with Montgom- 
ery. He fought even more bravely at Saratoga when 
he went into the battle on his black horse, without or- 
ders, and did more than any other officer to force Bur- 
goyne to surrender. Besides being a good soldier, he 



54 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

was popular in society. He married a Tory woman. He 
spent his money recklessly and wasted some of the 
money belonging to the American army. For this Gen- 
eral Washington reprimanded him severely, but forgave 
him on account of the good work that he had done. 
Trusting him without hesitation, General Washington 
placed him in command of West Point. 

Arnold was still sullen. He turned traitor by letting 
Sir Henry Clinton of the British army at New York 
City know that he was willing to surrender West Point 
to him. As a reward he was to receive 10,000 pounds 
and a colonel's commission in the English army. Major 
Andre of the British army was selected to make the 
necessary arrangements between Clinton and Arnold. 
While he was returning from West Point to New York 
City, he was caught at Tarrytown by the Americans 
and, on being searched, Arnold's agreement with Clin- 
ton was found in Andre's boots. Andre was hanged as 
a spy. Arnold escaped to a British warship on the Hud- 
son River. When old age came on he lived in London 
in poverty, despised by everybody. Just before he died 
he begged the priest beside him to help him put on his 
old faded American uniform. 



The Revolution in the South — Yorktown 

LESSON 32 

In 1776 the British tried to capture Charleston in 
South Carolina and a vain attempt was made to land 
troops, but they failed. They tried again in 1778, with 
no more success. Finally, in 1780, they succeeded when 
they made the attack by land. General Comwallis was 
left in command. It was his duty to over-run and sub- 
due the South. 

Patriotic bands under such leaders as Sumter, Lee 
and Marion kept him busy. The patriots knew the 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 55 

country well and would attack the British at unex- 
pected times and always get away. 

Comwallis defeated the Americans under General 
Horatio Gates at Camden and again at King's Moun- 
tain and Cowpens, but his losses were more than his 
gains. 

General Nathaniel Greene then took command of the 
Americans and under him the Americans fought Com- 
wallis and his army at Guilford Court-house, North 
Carolina. It was another defeat for the Americans, but 
the British lost so many soldiers that they gave up the 
idea of the invasion. 

At this time Lafayette was in command of the 
Americans in Virginia. Lord Cornwallis determined to 
capture him. He marched his army into Virginia and 
built entrenchments at Yorktown between the York and 
James Rivers. Washington made up his mind to go to 
Virginia and fight Cornwallis at Yorktown. He was 
strong now, as a French army under Count Rocham- 
beau had come to his assistance. While he meant to go 
to Yorktown, he had to make Sir Henry Clinton, who 
was in New York City, believe he was going to attack 
that place. He succeeded in deceiving Clinton and kept 
him afraid to leave New York City. At the right time, 
with the American and the French armies, he rushed to 
Yorktown. While he made this move a strong French 
fleet under Count De Grasse blockaded Comwallis so 
that he could not escape by sea. With Americans and 
French attacking him by land and the French fleet by 
sea, there was no escape for Comwallis. He was forced 
to surrender. This was a great victory for the Ameri- 
cans and really ended the Revolutionary War, although 
the British still held New York City and Charlestown. 
The surrender of Yorktown took place in October, 1781. 



56 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Revolutionary War at Sea 

LESSON 33 

Holland and Spain followed France in declaring war 
against Great Britain and their united navies helped 
the Americans by keeping the British navy occupied 
in protecting other possessions of the British Empire. 
The Americans had no navy, but they permitted the 
fitting out of privateers to capture British merchant 
ships. John Paul Jones was the most noted American 
naval hero. He fitted out a number of vessels in 
France and did much damage to English shipping along 
the coasts of England and Scotland. 

In his flagship, ''Bonhomme Richard," he attacked 
the British frigate ''Serapis" and captured it. While 
this fight was going on the "Bonhomme Richard" be- 
gan to sink and when the British captain asked Captain 
Paul Jones if he was ready to surrender he (Jones) re- 
plied, **We have not begun to fight yet." He lashed his 
sinking ship to the *'Serapis" and the Americans fought 
the British hand to hand and made them surrender. 
Then the Americans sailed away in their prize, the 
"Serapis," and their ship, the ''Bonhomme Richard," 
went down. 



How the Mississippi Valley Was Saved for 
the Americans 

LESSON 34 

While the Revolutionary War was going on along 
the Atlantic Coast, claiming almost everyone's atten- 
tion, the rich Mississippi Valley was not forgotten. To 
get possession of it and hold it was a task that fell to a 
young Virginian, George Rogers Clark. He had ex- 
plored the great valley and was determined to have it 
for the Americans. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 57 

With help from the Virginia government and a few 
bold riflemen, he crossed the Allegheny Mountains, 
went down the Ohio River to the Mississippi River and 
up that river to Cahokia. He captured Kaskaskia. Then 
he went across the swamp lands, suffering all kinds of 
hardships, and without any difficulty captured Vin- 
cennes, in what is now called Indiana. Thus he won 
the Mississippi Valley for the Americans. 



The Treaty of Paris That Ended the 
Revolutionary War 

LESSON 35 

The commissioners who made the treaty of peace 
had many questions to settle. Our country was repre- 
sented by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John 
Jay. They met the commissioners of Great Britain at 
Paris. For two years the terms of settlement were dis- 
cussed. Finally, in September, 1783, they came to an 
agreement. At last the independence of the United 
States of America was acknowledged by Great Britain. 
At last our glorious flag, the stars and stripes, had an 
unquestioned right to wave, inviting the oppressed of 
every land to find a home under its protecting folds. 

It was agreed by the Treaty of Paris that the United 
States should include all the land from the Atlantic 
Ocean to the Mississippi River and from the Great 
Lakes to Florida. Canada was kept by Great Britain 
and Florida and all the land west of the Mississippi 
River were given to Spain. 

After the eight years of fighting, from 1775 to 1783, 
our country was free. 

There was great rejoicing in all the thirteen States 
when the last of the British ships sailed away. 



58 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

After the Revolutionary War 

LESSON 36 

We must not forget that to George Washington is 
due more than to any other man the honor of the Great 
RepubHc. We know how well he led our army through 
many difficulties to victory, but we must honor him 
more, going home to his Mt. Vernon, when the work 
was done. Many people wanted him to be king, but he 
refused the offer as an insult. If he had accepted, like 
most men would, how different all things would be. We 
must not forget that Robert Morris, the financier, by 
getting money to buy supplies, helped to win as much 
as any of those who fought. 

We must not forget that Benjamin Franklin, by 
prevailing upon the King of France to give us aid, per- 
formed a great service. We must be grateful, always, 
to the French people for their assistance. The follow- 
ing foreigners are particularly deserving of remem- 
brance for the assistance they rendered during the war: 
Lafayette from France, Kosciuszko from Poland, De 
Kalb from Bavaria, and Steuben from Germany. The 
American women, like women always, denied them- 
selves almost everything in order to help win our inde- 
pendence. 

The American Flag 

LESSON 37 

The American Flag, also called Old Glory and the 
Red, White and Blue, is the most beautiful national 
emblem that waves in the winds of this world. 

When Americans say: "I pledge allegiance to my 
flag and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation 
indivisible, with liberty and justice for all," they fix 
their eyes upon a harmony of colors that no other flag 
possesses. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 59 

Washington said : "We take the stars from heaven, 
the red from our mother country, separating it by- 
white stripes, showing that we have separated from 
her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity 
representing liberty." 

It is well for us to know what Washington said 
about our flag, but when we salute it we think of the 
white stars upon their field of blue as representing the 
union of our great States and we think of the seven red 
stripes and six white stripes as reminding us of the 
thirteen colonies, whose brave people won our inde- 
pendence, which please God shall never die. 

We think of the red as standing for the bravery of 
Americans, the blue for their loyalty, and the white for 
their justice to all peoples. 

Before our present flag was adopted by Congress, 
the colonists had various other emblems like "the pine- 
tree flag" and "the rattlesnake flag" bearing the warn- 
ing, "Don't tread on me." The flag carried by Wash- 
ington's soldiers, at first, was one containing the thir- 
teen stripes, but instead of our stars in the upper left- 
hand comer it bore the English crosses of St. George 
and St. Andrew. 

In June, 1776, Washington and a committee of Con- 
gress planned our present flag. A woman named Betsy 
Ross of Philadelphia is given credit for making the first 
flag, but there is no evidence to prove this. 

The flag planned by Washington and the committee 
of Congress was adopted by Congress on June 14, 1777. 

The first great victory in which our flag cheered our 
soldiers on to greater effort was the Battle of Benning- 
ton, which compelled Burgoyne to surrender his army 
to the Americans. 

After our independence was won, there was no 
change in our flag until 1794, when Vermont and Ken- 
tucky were admitted to the Union. Then two more 
stars and two more stripes were added to the flag to 
represent the new States. The people did not like this 



60 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

arrangement and, finally, in 1818, Congress decided to 
return to the original thirteen stripes with a star for 
every State. That arrangement has continued to the 
present day. 

Not only Americans, but also civilized people of every 
part of this world, honor our flag. The oppressed of 
every land long to live under its protecting folds. But 
the greatest honor ever paid to our flag was our na- 
tional song, 'The Star Spangled Banner," written by 
Francis Scott Key while British cannons bombarded 
Fort McHenry, over which our flag waved and contin- 
ued to wave, because the brave defenders of the fort 
did not surrender and the city of Baltimore was saved 
from British capture. 

Now, whenever that song is played or sung, all true 
Americans stand at attention to show respect and 
honor to our flag. 

** 'Tis the star spangled banner, O long may it wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.'' 



Supplemental Text-Books for 
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Thirteen Hundred Problems in Arithmetic. By S. P. 

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Pacific History Stories. By Harr Wagner and Alice 
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This book has been adopted for the use of pupils in 
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grade, in San Francisco's new course of study in his- 
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Poems for Memorizing. Part I, for first, second, 
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There has long been need of a book of memory selections 
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The Story of Matka. By David Starr Jordan, Chan- 
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Forward Looking Lessons in U. S. History. By 
W. J. Savage, Superintendent of Colma and Daly 
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These topical lessons have been thoroughly tested 
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The Geography of California. By Dr. Harold W. 
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The object of this book is to give a simple but detailed descrip- 
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Civil Government Simplified. By J. J. Duvall, Prin- 
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Prices given are subject to the usual discounts to book-sellers 
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Forward Looking Lessons 
IN U.S. History 



UP - TO - DATE - ALIVE 
FOR EIGHTH GRADE 



BY 

W. J. SAVAGE 

SUPERINTENDENT OF THE COLMA AND DALY CITY SCHOOLS 
CALIFORNIA 



1919 

HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 

SAN FRANCISCO 

CALIFORNIA 



1919 
Copyrighted by W. J. Savage 



How and Why These Lessons Were 
Composed and Published 

After trying to teach United States History in 
schools of California for twenty years, using such texts 
as were available, the writer felt that he had never 
succeeded. 

No matter what plan he followed, nearly one-half of 
each class lost interest before the end was reached. 
Seeking for improvement, these lessons were developed. 
Each lesson was dictated to an average class, the pupils 
writing in their blank-books. The comprehension of 
the weaker members was constantly borne in mind. 

The following day the recitation took place. The 
abler ones gave it in their own language. It was con- 
sidered no disgrace for the others to recite verbatim. 
For all there was a steady increase of vocabulary and 
history. When the usual questions were asked, all were 
ready with complete answers. 

At the end of the year the ability of the class, com- 
pared to that of the many preceding ones, was agree- 
ably surprising. More than ninety per cent of them 
had retained interest in the study and were able to 
speak and write upon almost any topic fluently and 
correctly. 

For ten years past the lessons have been used, in 
different localities, by seventh and eighth grade teach- 
ers, and all report decided success. 

The best eighth grade teacher the writer has known 
said that she had always felt she was a failure in teach- 
ing United States History until she tried these lessons. 
With them her pupils were so enthusiastic and anxious 
to discourse on the subject, she knew she had become a 
success. 

Another eighth grade teacher said if she should be 
superseded she would take every history blank-book 
away with her and that then her successor could never 
reach the high standard she had attained. 



Besides a knowledge of history and the expression 
of it, these lessons develop love of country, considera- 
tion for others and independence of thought. 

In conclusion, the lessons have been found to be so 
helpful to the teachers and pupils who have used them 
that the writer has complied with a steadily increasing 
demand and they are published. 

The lessons are offered in two books — one for the 
seventh grade of thirty-seven lessons, each lesson being 
considered ample for a week's work ; the other for the 
eighth grade of one hundred nine lessons, each for 
a day's work. 

Sufficient time for frequent reviews of the more 
important subjects and outside reading of history 
remains. 

Respectfully, 

W. J. SAVAGE. 



Publisher's Foreword 

These lessons in United States History 
for the Seventh and Eighth Grades, written 
by W. J. Savage, have been thoroughly tried 
out by practical teachers. The results have 
been so satisfactory that the lessons are pre- 
sented in permanent form. The topical 
method, the simple language, the narrative 
style, the use of a few words to tell the im- 
portant facts, will certainly appeal to teach- 
ers. The publishers believe that this book 
will be of real service to the schools. 



FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 



Contents 



Lesson 1. How the United States Was Governed During 

the Revolutionary War 9 

Lesson 2. The Northwest Territory and the Ordinance of 

1787 9 

Lesson 3. The Condition of Money, Business and Com- 
merce After the Revolution and Before the 

Constitution Was Adopted 10 

Lesson 4. Troubles of Our Country Before the Constitu- 
tion Was Adopted 11 

Lesson 5. How the Constitutional Convention Came About 12 

Lesson 6. The Constitutional Convention 13 

Lesson 7. The Plans of the Constitutional Convention 14 

Lesson 8. The Compromise of the Constitutional Con- 
vention 15 

Lesson 9. Congress 16 

Lesson 10. The Executive Department 17 

Lesson 11. The President's Cabinet 17 

Lesson 12. The Judicial Department 18 

Lesson 13. The Ratification of the Constitution 19 

Lesson 14. Organization of the Government Under the 

Constitution 20 

Lesson 15. National Growth and European Interference 21 

Lesson 16. The Origin of American Neutrality 22 

Lesson 17. Citizen Genet, French Minister from France to 

the United States 23 

Lesson 18. The Jay Treaty 24 

Lesson 19. Troubles with France 25 

Lesson 20. The Alien and Sedition Acts 26 

Lesson 21. More Troubles on Account of Commerce 27 

Lesson 22. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 28 

Lesson 23. Louisiana Purchase 29 

Lesson 24. European Interference with American Com- 
merce Again 31 

Lesson 25. The War of 1812 32 

Lesson 26. The American Army and Navy in 1812 32 

Lesson 27. The War of 1812 on Land 33 

Lesson 28. The War of 1812 on Sea 34 

Lesson 29. The Treaty of Peace That Ended the War of 

1812 35 

Lesson 30. The Hartford Convention 36 

Lesson 31. The Purchase of Florida 37 

Lesson 32. The Monroe Doctrine 38 

Lesson 33. The End of European Interference 40 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Lesson 34. Hamilton's Financial Measures 41 

Lesson 35. Some Objections to Hamilton's Plans 42 

Lesson 36. The Tariff Laws 42 

Lesson 37. The Missouri Compromise 43 

Lesson 88. The Unity of National Feeling 44 

Lesson 39. American Inventions 45 

Lesson 40. The Election of Andrew Jackson 46 

Lesson 41. The Spoils System 48 

Lesson 42. Nominating Conventions, Platforms and Cam- 
paigns 49 

Lesson 43. The "Whigs and Democrats 50 

Lesson 44. South Carolina and Nullification 51 

Lesson 45. The Destruction of the United States Bank 53 

Lesson 46. State Banks 54 

Lesson 47. Surplus Government Money Given to the 

States . . 55 

Lesson 48. The Financial Panic of 1837 '. 56 

Lesson 49. Independent or Sub-Treasury System 56 

Lesson 50. The Oregon Country 57 

Lesson 51. The Annexation of Texas 58 

Lesson 52. The Mexican War 59 

Lesson 53. The Settlement of Oregon and California. 61 

Lesson 54. The Abolitionists 62 

Lesson 55. The Compromise of 1850 63 

Lesson 56. Kansas-Nebraska Bill 64 

Lesson 57. The Dred Scott Decision 65 

Lesson 58. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 66 

Lesson 59. The Election of Abraham Lincoln as President.. 67 

Lesson 60. The Civil War 68 

Lesson 61. Why the South Had Little Chance to Win the 

War 70 

Lesson 62. The Battle of Bull Rim 71 

Lesson 63. Emancipation Proclamation 72 

Lesson 64. The Civil War in the East 73 

Lesson 65. Civil War in the West 74 

Lesson 66. Sherman's March to the Sea .^... 75 

Lesson 67. Lee's Surrender 76 

Lesson 68. The American Navy During the Civil War 77 

Lesson 69. The Alabama Claims and the Geneva Awards.... 79 

Lesson 70. The Monitor and the Merrimac 80 

Lesson 71. Results of the Civil War 81 

Lesson 72. Reconstruction 82 

Lesson 73. The Tenure of Office Act — The Impeachment 

of President Johnson 88 

Lesson 74. The New South 84 

Lesson 75. The Purchase of Alaska 85 

Lesson 76. Tariff Questions in Recent Times 86 



FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 



Lesson 


77. 


Lesson 


78. 


Lesson 


79. 


Lesson 


80. 


Lesson 


81. 


Lesson 


82. 


Lesson 


83. 


Lesson 


84. 


Lesson 


85. 


Lesson 


86. 


Lesson 


87. 


Lesson 


88. 


Lesson 


89. 


Lesson 


90. 


Lesson 


91. 


Lesson 


92. 


Lesson 


93. 


Lesson 


94. 


Lesson 


95. 


Lesson 


96. 


Lesson 


97. 


Lesson 


98. 


Lesson 


99. 


Lesson 


100. 


Lesson 


101. 


Lesson 


102. 


Lesson 


103. 


Lesson 


104. 


Lesson 


105. 


Lesson 


106. 


Lesson 


107. 


Lesson 


108. 


Lesson 


109. 



Corporations 87 

Labor Unions 88 

Recent Application of the Monroe Doctrine 89 

The Hague Tribunal 90 

Spanish-American War 91 

The Panama Canal 93 

Presidents After Civil V/ar Up to 1896 94 

Early History of California 95 

Mexican Rule in California 97 

California from the Mexican War to the 

Present Time 98 

American Inventions 99 

American Railroads 100 

Mining and Manufacturing 101 

Commerce and Growth of Cities 102 

The Advancement of Education 103 

Noted Co-lleges 104 

Presidential Campaign of 1896 104 

Theodore Roosevelt 105 

William Howard Taft 106 

Conservation 107 

The Reclamation Act 107 

Election Reforms 108 

Woodrow Wilson 109 

Mexican Troubles Ill 

Amendments to the Constitution 112 

The Causes and Beginning of the World War.... 112 
Our Country During the Beginning of the 

World War 114 

The World War from 1915 to March, 1918 115 

Features of the World War 116 

The Causes of Our War with Gennany 118 

The United States Declares War Against Ger- 
many — Preparations for the Contest 118 

The End of the World War 120 

The Peace Conference 121 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 9 

How the United States Was Governed 

During the Revolutionary War and 

After the War Until the Constitution 

Was Adopted 

LESSON 1 

At first our country was governed by Congress 
alone. This Congress was composed of representatives 
from the thirteen States. 

The people thought that there ought to be a Su- 
preme Law to direct the members of Congress. Con- 
gress made up a system of laws called the Articles of 
Confederation. When the States had adopted these 
Articles they became the Supreme Law of our coun- 
try and remained so until the Constitution was adopted 
in 1789. 

The Articles of Confederation were never satisfac- 
tory. They did not hold the States together in a close 
union and they did not give Congress any power to 
collect taxes, raise and support armies, or to regulate 
commerce. 

Under the Articles of Confederation the country 
continued to become weaker instead of stronger, and 
the people poorer instead of richer. 

The Northwest Territory and the 
Ordinance of 1787 

LESSON 2 

The most important law enacted by Congress, under 
the Articles of Confederation, was the Ordinance of 
1787. The object of this ordinance was to govern the 
land known as the Northwest Territory, which was 
north of the Ohio River and between the Mississippi 
River and the Appalachian Mountains. This territory 



la FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

had been claimed by Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vir- 
ginia and New York, but they had given up their 
claims to it and now it was in the hands of the general 
government. 

The Ordinance of 1787 is important for several rea- 
sons. It was the beginning of territorial form of gov- 
ernment and is in use to this day in our territories like 
Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands. 

The Ordinance of 1787 provided that the governor 
of the territory was to be appointed by Congress but 
that the territory should have a legislature composed 
of men elected by its own people. It also provided that 
when the territory increased in population it would be 
divided into parts and each part would be admitted into 
the Union as a State, with just the same rights as the 
other States. 

Out of the Northwest Territory the following States 
were made: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and 
Michigan. 

By the Ordinance of 1787 it was enacted that there 
should not be any slavery in the Northwest Territory 
or in any State made from it. 



The Condition of Money, Business and 

Commerce After the Revolution and 

Before the Constitution 

Was Adopted 

LESSON 3 

This time in our history is the critical period, be- 
cause everything was so uncertain. It was not known 
whether our country would fail or succeed. 

There was very little money, business or commerce. 
All the hard money they had were the coins of Eng- 
land, Spain and France. After the Revolution nearly 
all the money they had went to pay for goods which the 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 11 

English merchants sent over and which the Americans 
needed very much. 

The Americans did have paper money, which was 
issued in large quantities during the Revolution to 
carry on the war. At first the people received this 
paper money and accepted it in pay for products, but 
after a while they thought that Congress would never 
be able to redeem it. When the people began to be- 
lieve this, the value of the paper money became less 
and less. Before the war closed it would take a hun- 
dred dollars in paper money to buy as much as one 
dollar in hard money. This shows us what little faith 
the people had in their government at that time. 

When there is no money and no faith in the govern- 
ment, the people have hard times, and there is no busi- 
ness or commerce. 



Troubles of Our Country Before the 
Constitution Was Adopted 

LESSON 4 

Congress could ask the States to collect taxes for 
the support of the general government, but it could 
not compel them to collect and pay it over to the United 
states government under the Articles of Confedera- 
tion. Since the States were not compelled to pay the 
taxes, they did not pay them. As a consequence, there 
was no money to pay the expenses of the general gov- 
ernment and the nations of Europe would not respect 
a nation that could not pay its debts. For awhile the 
European people were inclined to ridicule our country 
and would not make treaties with us. 

The small States were jealous of the larger States 
and sometimes were so angry with one another that 
they threatened to go to war. It began to look as 
though we had thirteen separate nations instead of 
one great nation. 



12 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The different States made different tariff laws for 
imported goods, and some States put a tariff on goods 
coming in from sister States. Some of the tariffs were 
low and some were high. Everything was in an unset- 
tled condition. 

In 1786 a rebellion broke out in Massachusetts 
against the State government which was known as 
Shay's Rebellion. More than 2,000 people started this 
rebellion because the Legislature of Massachusetts 
would not pass a paper money bill. It took 4,000 sol- 
diers to put down Shay's Rebellion. All these troubles 
and many others made it plain to the people that it 
was necessary to have a stronger government than the 
Articles of Confederation could give. 



How the Constitutional Convention 
Came About 

LESSON 5 

When the Revolutionary War was ended Washing- 
ton resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of 
the American army. He refused to accept even one 
cent as pay for his services during the war. All he 
asked was that Congress should pay him back what he 
had spent out of his own pocket, and he gave Congress 
a careful account of that. He knew that Congress had 
very little money, so he said that he would wait for 
what was coming to him. Then he hurried to Mt. 
Vernon to spend another Christmas at home with his 
friends. He intended to spend the rest of his life at 
Mt. Vernon, one of the most beautiful places in Vir- 
ginia. 

While he was at Mt. Vernon, in talking with several 
friends about the settlement of the Mississippi Valley, 
he advised that Virginia and Maiyland should hold a 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 13 

joint convention to decide about good roads across the 
Appalachian Mountains. 

Acting upon this advice, Maryland sent a letter to 
Virginia asking the Legislature of that State to send 
delegates to Annapolis and to ask other States to do 
the same. When this convention met at Annapolis it 
was found that only five States had sent delegates. 

At this convention nothing was done except to ask 
Congress to have all the States send delegates to a con- 
vention to be held at Philadelphia. The States paid at- 
tention to the request of Congress and their best men 
were chosen as delegates. All the people took great 
interest in the proposed convention and though the 
constitution was never mentioned while the delegates 
were being chosen, this convention became the Consti- 
tutional Convention. 



The Constitutional Convention 

LESSON 6 

The convention that met at Philadelphia in May, 
1787, is known in history as the Constitutional Conven- 
tion because it made the great Constitution of the 
United States. It was the most important convention 
ever held in America because its work was the great- 
est that has ever been accomplished. 

This convention was composed of fifty-five mem- 
bers and all the States were represented except little 
Rhode Island. All the States had sent their best men, 
and never before or since had so many able men been 
gathered together to improve the government. A few 
of the leaders were George Washington, Benjamin 
Franklin, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. 
Washington was chosen president and Madison sec- 
retary. The convention was held behind closed doors 
and the curious public was not allowed to see or hear 
what was going on. 



14 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

James Madison, the secretary, kept a full record of 
everything that was said or done and this was not 
given to the public until fifty years later. 

The Constitution was not made in a day. It took 
four months of debating and speechmaking before the 
great work was accomplished. 



The Plans of the Constitutional 
Convention 

LESSON 7 

While the members of the convention were talking 
about what was best to be done, the different States 
suggested plans for making a stronger central gov- 
ernment. 

Several of the delegates thought that the people 
would not be satisfied with a stronger central govern- 
ment and they wanted to improve the Articles of Con- 
federation, but Washington said that it would be bet- 
ter to make a new constitution than to patch up the 
Articles of Confederation. The convention took his 
advice. Two plans were considered. The New Jersey 
plan suggested a national legislature to consist of one 
house, with its members elected by the State, and each 
State to have the same number of members. This was 
objected to because it gave the small States more rep- 
resentation than they were entitled to. The people of 
Virginia wanted a national legislature to consist of 
two houses, an upper house and a lower house. They 
wanted the members of the lower house to be elected 
by the States and the members of the upper house to be 
elected by the members of the lower house. This plan 
was also objected to because it gave the larger States 
more representation than they were entitled to. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 1« 

The Compromises of the Constitutional 
Convention 

LESSON 8 

A compromise is a settlement of a dispute, both the 
disputing parties giving up a number of things they 
were disputing for. By a compromise both sides are 
satisfied. 

The first compromise of the Constitutional Conven- 
tion was in regard to the National Legislature. 

It was decided to have two houses, the upper house 
and the lower house. To satisfy the small States, every 
State was to have two members in the upper house. 
To satisfy the large States it was decided that the 
States would be represented in the lower house accord- 
ing to their population. 

The second compromise was on the subject of slav- 
ery. The southern States wanted the slaves counted as 
population and the northern States did not want them 
counted at all. This dispute was settled by allowing 
five slaves to be counted as three white people, in esti- 
mating the population. 

The third compromise was on the subject of com- 
merce and the importation of slaves. All the southern 
States objected to Congress having control of com- 
merce. A few of the southern States wanted to con- 
tinue the importation of slaves. 

All the northern States were opposed to this. It was 
finally agreed that Congress should have entire con- 
trol of commerce and that slaves might be imported 
by the southern States until 1808. 



16 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Congress 

LESSON 9 

The three departments of our government, provided 
for by the Constitution, are the Legislative Depart- 
ment, the Executive Department and the Judicial De- 
partment. 

Congress is composed of two houses, the upper 
house and the lower house. The National Legislative 
Department or the National Legislature is called Con- 
gress. 

The upper house is known as the United States 
Senate and the members of this house are elected by 
the people, two from each State. 

They hold office for six years. One-third of the 
members of the United States Senate go in, new, every 
two years, and the other two-thirds hold over, so that 
the United States Senate is never entirely new. 

The lower house, sometimes called the Popular 
House, is known as the House of Representatives. All 
of its members are elected by the people and all of them 
hold office for only two years, so that every two years 
it is entirely renewed. 

The number of representatives that each State may 
have depends upon the population. New York has many 
representatives on account of its large population, while 
Nevada has but one representative because its popula- 
tion is so small. 

Since the people vote directly for members of the 
House of Representatives, and since the people can 
change them all at one election, the lower house is said 
to represent the people. 

The United States Senate is said to represent the 
States. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 17 

The Executive Department 

LESSON 10 

The Constitution created a strong Executive De- 
partment. The President is at the head of the Execu- 
tive Department. He is not elected directly by the 
people. That is, the people do not vote for anyone for 
President, but they elect electors, whose only duty is to 
elect a President and Vice-President. Both are elected 
for a term of four years. 

The President is commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy. He appoints the members of the Cabinet, 
the members of the Supreme Court, all the postmasters, 
all the ministers to foreign countries and many other 
officers. All his appointments must be ratified by the 
United States Senate. 

The President must sign all bills passed by Congress 
that he wants to become laws. When he does not want 
a bill to become a law, after it has been passed by Con- 
gress, he vetoes it. 

The only duty of the Vice-President is to preside 
over the Senate, but should the President become un- 
able to perform his duties, through absence, sickness, 
death, or impeachm.ent, then the Vice-President takes 
his place and has all his duties to perform. Several 
Vice-Presidents have become Presidents through the 
death of the President, but none of them in any other 
way. 

The President's Cabinet 

LESSON 11 

It is impossible for one man to perform all the 
duties of the Executive of the United States Govern- 
ment, so, in order to help the President, Congress has 
divided the work into ten departments and at the head 
of each of these departments there is a Cabinet of- 



18 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

ficer and their titles are as follows : Secretary of State, 
Secretary of War, Secretary of Treasury, Secretary of 
Navy, Postmaster General, Attorney General, Secre- 
tary of Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, Secretary of 
Commerce and Secretary of Labor. Under each Cab- 
inet officer is a large number of men and women who 
are employed to help do the work. 

The ten Cabinet officers are known as the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet. They are appointed by him and are his 
political friends and advisers. The President often 
calls them together to talk over public affairs, and get 
the benefit of their advice. They are generally the 
wisest public men in the country. Each one of the Cab- 
inet officers gets an annual salary of $12,000 and the 
terms of office depend upon the President. He can dis- 
miss any one or all of them whenever he sees fit. 

The Judicial Department 

LESSON 12 

The Constitution provides for a Judicial Depart- 
ment as well as for other departments. 

The Judicial Department consists of the Supreme 
Court and such inferior courts as Congress may es- 
tablish. 

The Supreme Court consists of nine judges, one of 
whom is called the Chief Justice. 

The inferior courts are called Circuit Courts, Dis- 
trict Courts, Court of Claims and Court of Appeals. 

All the judges of the United States Courts are ap- 
pointed by the President and all hold office for life, or 
during good behavior, but each one of their appoint- 
ments must be ratified by the United States Senate. 
The duty of the Supreme Court is to interpret the laws 
passed by Congress. If anyone thinks a law is unjust, 
he takes the case before the Supreme Court and judges 
look into the case, and whatever they decide must be 
final. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 19 

No personal trouble can be taken before the Su- 
preme Court unless it amounts to more than $5,000. 

The inferior courts have been established by Con- 
gress to relieve the Supreme Court of work it has no 
time to do. 

The high character of the Supreme Court has made 
it honored and respected all over the world. No other 
nation has a court which has so much power. All 
Americans are proud of their Supreme Court. 



The Ratification of the Constitution 

LESSON 13 

We, naturally, think that the people should have 
been overjoyed to get such a grand Constitution and 
that they should have been only too willing to ratify 
or adopt it as their own, but it was not so. The people 
were very slow in adopting it and for awhile it was 
thought that they would never adopt it. A great many 
people were afraid to have a stronger central govern- 
ment. They were afraid it would take away their lib- 
erties, like the government in England had done. Such 
people opposed the Constitution. 

The Constitution could not become the supreme law 
until nine States had adopted it. The people of each 
State did not vote directly for the Constitution, but 
they adopted it by means of a special State convention 
or by the State Legislature. 

The campaign for the ratification of the Constitu- 
tion continued for several months. Debates about it 
took place in all the towns. The people discussed it 
everywhere. 

Those in favor of it were called Federalists and 
those who opposed it were called Anti-Federalists. 
These were our first political parties. 

The greatest upholders of the Constitution were 
Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. These two 



20 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

great men did all in their power to teach the people 
that the Constitution was the very best thing for them. 
They published eighty-five articles in a newspaper 
called the "Federalist," and they did a great deal to 
convince the people the Constitution should be adopted. 
The severest troubles over the Constitution took 
place in New York, Massachusetts and Virginia. When 
these three States finally ratified the Constitution, there 
was great rejoicing throughout the nation. At last our 
country was established on a strong foundation. 



Organization of the Government 
Under the Constitution 

LESSON 14 

When the Constitution was adopted or ratified, the 
government under the Articles of Confederation came 
to an end, and it was necessary to organize a new gov- 
ernment. The first thing to be done was to elect a 
President and a Vice-President, so an election was 
held and sixty-nine presidential electors were elected 
by the people. New York, Rhode Island and North 
Carolina did not elect any electors, for they were not 
ready to do so at the time the election was held. All 
the sixty-nine electors voted for Washington for Presi- 
dent and John Adams received the next highest number 
and was made Vice-President. At that time the man 
who received the highest number of votes was elected 
President and whoever received the next highest num- 
ber became Vice-President. Now each elector votes for 
one man for President and one man for Vice-President 
and both receive the same number of votes, and they 
generally belong to the same party. This change was 
made to have harmony between the President and the 
Vice-President. 

Now the President is inaugurated or put into office 
on the 4th of March, but George Washington was not 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 21 

inaugurated until the 30th of April, 1789, because Con- 
gress was not ready until then. George Washington 
chose as his Cabinet the following: Secretary of State, 
Thomas Jefferson; Secretary of Treasury, Alexander 
Hamilton; Secretary of War, Henry Knox; and Attor- 
ney General, John Randolph. This is all the Cabinet 
there was at that time. Congress passed all the neces- 
sary laws for the formation of the Judicial Department 
and John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. 

And, now that the government was established 
upon a firm foundation, the critical period of our his- 
tory came to an end. 



National Growth and European 
Interference 

LESSON 15 

After the critical period comes the period of Euro- 
pean interference and national growth. 

By European interference we mean that the differ- 
ent strong nations of Europe, especially England and 
France, thought they could do as they pleased with 
the commerce of the young republic. They were con- 
stantly interfering with our sailors and in other ways 
insulting our flag. 

The United States was weak on account of the 
Articles of Confederation and could not retaliate, but 
the Constitution gave our country strength and the day 
came when all the countries of Europe were compelled 
to respect the stars and stripes. In the lessons that are 
coming we shall find out all about this. 

By national growth we mean that our country was 
gradually becoming more and more united into a single 
great nation under the Constitution. 

At first each State thought it was an independent 
part and could do as it wished without regard to the 



22 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

others. After many serious troubles the States found 
out that in union there is strength, so they got into 
the habit of sticking together and beheving that they 
were one nation, and not thirteen nations. 



The Origfin of American Neutrality 

LESSON 16 

By American neutraHty we mean the policy of the 
United States in conducting our affairs so as not to 
take part in the wars of other nations, in any way. 

France was always quarreling with England and 
expected the United States to help her. Many of the 
Americans wanted our government to help France, but 
Washington knew it would make never-ending trouble 
for us if we did so and consequently he announced the 
policy of American neutrality, which our nation has 
followed ever since. 

Just about the time the Constitution was adopted 
the people of France were having a revolution — that 
is, they were changing their government. For many 
years the aristocrats, or rich people, had been treat- 
ing the poor people in a cruel manner. The aristocrats 
were living a life of idleness and splendor, while the 
poor people were taxed so heavily that they had noth- 
ing left with which to buy bread. Many of them were 
starving. 

At last the poor people rose against the aristocrats, 
defeated them in many a battle and took possession of 
the government of France. 

As soon as they had power, they, too, became very 
cruel. The king and queen of France and thousands of 
nobles and aristocrats were beheaded. The poor people 
did all this in the name of liberty and that is why many 
Americans wanted to help them, but Washington's 
policy of American neutrality kept them from inter- 
fering. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 23 

Citizen Genet, French Minister from 
France to the United States 

LESSON 17 

By a minister, in history and civil government, we 
mean a man who is sent by the government of his na- 
tive land to represent his country in some foreign land. 
A minister is generally a very able, pleasant and per- 
suasive man. He speaks various languages and knows 
how to make himself agreeable. 

When the people of France took possession of the 
French government and put so many nobles to death, 
the other nations in Europe became greatly alarmed. 
The nobles of every nation feared that the people 
might rise against them and destroy their power, as 
had been done in France, so all the other nations were 
against the new government of France, especially Eng- 
land. 

England was so much opposed to France that her 
Parliament declared war against France. It was then 
that Citizen Genet was sent to the United States to get 
aid for France from the Americans and the Americans 
were only too willing to give her aid. When he 
landed in New York he was received with great honor. 
Large crowds gathered to hear and see him and every- 
body cheered for France. The people wore French col- 
ors and addressed each other using the word ''Citizen" 
instead of ''Mr. and Mrs.," as they were doing in 
France. 

Citizen Genet judged by this that everything was 
favorable for France. So he began to organize com- 
panies of soldiers and gather together supplies of all 
kinds to help France. He did this without presenting 
his credentials to President Washington. The Presi- 
dent considered that he had done wrong in doing so 
much before presenting his credentials. Washington 
forbade him to do any work for France in America and 
demanded his recall by the French government. The 



24 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Americans criticised Washington very much for this, 
as Citizen Genet was a very popular man ; but President 
Washington could not have done anything else and live 
up to American neutrality, which he announced at this 
time. 



The Jay Treaty 

LESSON 18 

When, the treaty of 1783, which ended the Revolu- 
tionary War, was made wdth England and many ques- 
tions betw^een the two nations were left unsettled, Eng- 
land had failed to abandon her forts along the Canadian 
frontier, as she had agreed to do, and American set- 
tlers said that her agents urged the Indians to take 
the warpath against them. England also claimed 
the right to search American vessels in any port of 
the world and take from them any sailor who was bom 
in England. This "right of search" was very trouble- 
some to the American merchants and they objected to 
it. England also forbade our merchants to trade with 
the French West Indies while the war with France was 
going on. 

All these questions caused a very bitter feeling in 
the United States against England. These were the 
same Americans who wanted to help France. 

President Washington did not want war with any 
country. He was not afraid, but he knew that peace 
was best for the people. So he appointed John Jay, who 
was Chief Justice, as a special minister to England to 
settle all disputes and make a new treaty. The treaty 
was made, but it was very unsatisfactory to the Ameri- 
can people. England would not give up her "right of 
search" and refused to show proper respect for our 
country. 

Washington was not very well satisfied with the 
treaty, but he thought anything was better than war, 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 25 

SO he asked the United States Senate to adopt the 
treaty, which it did by a very close vote. Then all the 
newspapers denounced him more than ever, saying that 
he was afraid of England, yet Washington had done 
the best he knew for our country. 



Troubles with France 

LESSON 19 

When the Jay treaty was ratified it made the people 
of France angry with the United States. This treaty 
was a benefit to the commerce of England and an in- 
jury to the commerce of France. 

The French people said that Americans were un- 
grateful to them, that the American people should have 
remembered that the French people helped them when 
they needed help and that now the Americans should 
help instead of injuring them. 

The feeling was so bitter that when the American 
minister, Charles Pinckney, arrived in Paris the French 
government refused to receive him. Another reason 
for doing this was on account of Washington having 
sent Citizen Genet back to France. 

When the American people heard that the French 
people had refused to receive their minister, all their 
friendship for France turned to hatred at once, and 
they wanted war declared against France to wipe out 
the insults. 

But John Adams, who was President, wanted peace 
and he sent John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to join 
Pinckney in France. These three men were instructed 
by the President to make a new treaty with France in 
order to preserve peace. 

When they presented themselves before the French 
Directory they were informed that they would not be 
received unless they paid $250,000 to certain members 
of the French government. In plain words, this was 



26 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

asking for a bribe, and Charles Pinckney told them for 
an answer, **We have millions for defense, but not a 
cent for tribute." 

Afterwards, when President Adams spoke of this, 
he referred to the men who asked for the money and 
the whole trouble as the X Y Z affair. 

The American ministers now left France and there 
was a great clamor for war in America. Adams ap- 
pointed three more ministers, but before they reached 
Paris the French government was overthrown by the 
French people and Napoleon Bonaparte took his place 
at the head of the French government and sent word 
that the American ministers would be received with 
honor, and, after all, there was no war with France. 



The Alien and Sedition Acts 

LESSON 20 

The administration of John Adams, which lasted 
only four years, marks the end of the Federalist party. 
At this time there was very bitter feeling in all the 
States between the Federalists and the Anti-Federal- 
ists. John Adams and Alexander Hamilton were the 
leaders of the Federalists and Thomas Jefferson, who 
was then Vice-President, and James Madison were the 
leaders of the Anti-Federalists. 

The Anti-Federalists were rapidly increasing in 
number through immigration from Europe. In their 
newspapers and speeches the Anti-Federalists severely 
denounced all Federalists from the President down. 

In order to check their growth and stop them from 
writing and speaking so bitterly about the Federalists, 
the Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by Congress 
and signed by President Adams. 

By the Alien Law the President could have any for- 
eigner sent out of the country whom he thought unfit 
to remain here. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 27 

By the Sedition Law any person who wrote or spoke 
anything against the President, or any other high of- 
ficer of the government, could be arrested and, after 
trial, he might be fined or imprisoned. 

At the same time a new naturalization law was 
passed by Congress which required a foreigner to live 
in this country fourteen years, instead of five, before 
he could become a citizen and a voter of this country. 

Though these laws were never enforced to any great 
extent, they caused the downfall of the Federalists and 
the election of Thomas Jefferson as President of the 
United States. 

As soon as the Anti-Federalists got possession of 
the government, these unpopular laws were repealed by 
Congress and all the people rejoiced. 

More Troubles on Account of Commerce 

LESSON 21 

England insisted upon her **right of search." In 
1807 the British ship-of-war, ''Leopard," fired upon the 
American ship-of-war, "Chesapeake," and compelled 
the commander to give up three American citizens and 
one British citizen. These four citizens were forced 
into the British navy. 

This act was a great insult to the United States, 
and the English government apologized, but refused to 
give up the right of searching American vessels. Four 
years later the American warship "President" defeated 
the English warship "Little Belt" in a sea fight. This 
made the Americans feel good. They thought they 
were even with the English. 

Americans cannot read this part of our history 
without a feeling of shame and humiliation. Our mer- 
chants lost nearly all their trade and millions of dol- 
lars and our country was insulted more than once. 

Even the wise Jefferson made matters still worse 
by having Congress pass the "Embargo Act." This law 



28 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

forbade American vessels to leave American ports ex- 
cept to trade with other American ports. If obeyed, 
the law would have destroyed all our trade with for- 
eign nations. In order to enforce the Embargo Act, 
the Enforcement Act was passed. This law laid heavy 
restrictions on the coast trade of the United States and 
created a bitter opposition, especially in New England. 
The embargo was ruining the commerce of the United 
States and doing but little harm to France and Eng- 
land. It seemed to amuse Napoleon. He laughed at it. 
In 1809, just before the close of Jefferson's second ad- 
ministration, the Embargo Act was repealed and the 
Non-Intercourse Act was enacted by Congress. This 
act forbade trade with France and England and the 
countries they controlled, but permitted it with the rest 
of the world. 

American commerce at once began to prosper, 
though the French and English destroyed many of our 
vessels. Madison, who had become President, like Jef- 
ferson, loved peace, and, not wishing to go to war, was 
determined to stop the insulting conduct of these two 
nations without war. But the new Congress that met 
in 1811, assisted in its war plans by James Monroe, was 
determined to bring about an end to humiliation by 
declaring war against either France or England. 
James Monroe was convinced that these nations would 
never respect the rights of the United States until they 
were compelled to do so. 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 

LESSON 22 

A set of resolutions is a series of thoughts passed 
by any gathering of people to give expression to their 
feelings. Such were the Virginia and Kentucky Reso- 
lutions. They expressed the feelings of the people of 
Virginia and Kentucky on the subject of the Alien and 
Sedition Laws. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 29 

The Kentucky resolutions were written by Thomas 
Jefferson and passed by the Legislature of Kentucky. 

The Virginia resolutions were written by James 
Madison and passed by the Legislature of Virginia. 

If these resolutions had only condemned the Alien 
and Sedition Acts, then there would be no need to study 
about them, but they went much farther than this. 
These resolutions asserted that a State did not have to 
obey laws passed by Congress unless it wanted to — 
that the Constitution did not bind all the States to- 
gether and compel them to obey all the laws passed by 
Congress. These resolutions were the beginning of 
States' Rights, which became one of the causes of the 
secession of the Southern States and the Civil War. 

If Jefferson and Madison could have imagined all 
the trouble that their resolutions were going to bring 
about, those great patriots would certainly never have 
written them. 

Nearly all the Northern States had their Legisla- 
tures condemn the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 
but many of the Southern States approved of what 
Virginia and Kentucky had done. 

This shows that the Northern States were in favor 
of one strong central government and that the South- 
em States considered the State Government superior 
to the National Government. 



Louisiana Purchase 

LESSON 23 

At the time that we are now studying there were 
no railroads. Waterways were consequently very im- 
portant. The American settlers in the Mississippi Val- 
ley needed the Mississippi River to carry on their com- 
merce. They needed it to ship their products and to 
bring in foreign goods. 



30 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

At this time the United States did not own any land 
west of the Mississippi River and at the mouth of this 
river our country did not own any land on even the 
eastern side, so it might be said that the Americans 
did not have much to say about the Mississippi River. 
Spain had granted to the United States, by a treaty, a 
right known as the Right of Deposit — that is, the 
Americans were allowed to ship their goods by way of 
the Mississippi River. This right satisfied the Ameri- 
cans until Spain ceded Louisiana to France. Then the 
Americans became alarmed and feared they would lose 
the privilege of using the Mississippi River. 

Napoleon, who was at the head of France, had made 
that nation one of the greatest in the world, and the 
Americans feared that he would start another nation 
in the New World. Thomas Jefferson, who was Presi- 
dent, wished to settle the matter peaceably with France 
so he sent James Monroe to Paris to join the American 
minister and they tried to buy the territory known as 
Louisiana. Napoleon refused at first, but after awhile, 
fearing that England might take possession of Louisi- 
ana, he changed his mind and concluded to sell Louisi- 
ana to the Americans. The sale took place in 1803 and 
the price paid was only fifteen million dollars. This is 
the best bargain ever made, and when it was completed 
the United States was greatly enlarged and the Ameri- 
cans had full control of the great Mississippi. 

Napoleon knew how much he was adding to the 
greatness of the United States, because he said at that 
time : "This day I have given England a rival that she 
will never be able to conquer." 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 31 

European Interference with American 
Commerce Again 

LESSON 24 

From 1803 to 1815 England and France were con- 
stantly at war with each other. This was at the time 
of Napoleon's power in France. He had conquered 
Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria and Russia. England 
was the only nation that he could not conquer. The 
reason why he could not conquer England was because 
England had the strongest navy in the world and 
France had a very weak navy. The French army was 
very powerful, but Napoleon could never invade Eng- 
land with it because the English navy watched the seas 
closely. All the time that this war was going on be- 
tween England and France American commerce suf- 
fered greatly through the ''Orders in Council." Eng- 
land forbade all nations to do any trading with France. 
Napoleon, by proclamations called "decrees," warned 
all nations not to trade with England. This left the 
Americans without any place to trade with. If they 
traded with England, the French would capture them. 
If they traded with any other nation, England would 
capture them. At this time, by Jefferson's advice, the 
Embargo Act was passed by Congress. This Act re- 
quired all Americans to stay at home and not trade with 
any port unless it was an American port. The people 
of New England suffered greatly on account of the Em- 
bargo Act, because their people were largely engaged 
in commerce. The Embargo Act destroyed what little 
commerce France and England had left for the United 
States. 

Before Jefferson went out of office he had the Em- 
bargo Act repealed and in place of it Congress passed 
the Non-Intercourse Act. This Act forbade trade with 
England and France or any of their allies, but permitted 
it with all the rest of the world. Our commerce im- 
proved rapidly under this Act. 



32 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The War of 1812 

LESSON 25 

A great change had gradually taken place in our 
country. Nearly all the great men at the time of the 
Revolutionary War had passed away. Their work was 
done. Congress was now filled with young, ambitious, 
and patriotic men who represented new ideas. These 
men had faith in the future of their country. They 
thought their country was just as strong as any other 
country. Among them were such men as John C. Cal- 
houn of South Carolina, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and 
Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. These three men 
were great orators and their influence was felt in the 
affairs of our country for more than a quarter of a cen- 
tury. Such men as these did not believe that their 
country should let any other country insult her. 

Of course the main cause of the War of 1812 was 
England's **right of search." This was fully discussed 
in Congress and at last Congress declared war against 
England. 

James Madison, who was President, was not in 
favor of war because the country had no navy and no 
army, but still he signed the declaration of war. 

Another cause of the War of 1812 was that the 
Americans had good reason to believe the English were 
inducing the Indians to attack the American settlers 
on the frontier. 



The American Army and Navy in 1812 

LESSON 26 

Thomas Jefferson always believed that it was a 
waste of money to build up a navy or keep an army. 
He thought it was better to pay the debts of a nation 
and that the men would be better employed making 
their homes in the valley of the Mississippi. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 33 

James Madison believed the same as Jefferson did 
and so, under them, the army and navy were neglected. 

On account of this neglect by Jefferson and Mad- 
ison, there was hardly any army or navy on the Ameri- 
can side to begin the War of 1812. Altogether the 
Americans had less than twenty vessels, and of these 
only six were first-class vessels, while England had 
more than one thousand ships and two hundred of 
them were among the best battleships in the world. 

The American army consisted of a few thousand 
men and they were scattered along the frontier to pro- 
tect the American settlers from Indian attacks. 

To make matters worse, many of the Federalists, 
especially those who lived in New England, were op- 
posed to the War of 1812 and did all they could to ham- 
per the government. Nearly all the governors of New 
England States refused to send the State troops out- 
side of their States. At the beginning of the war 
things looked very bad for the Americans, but they won 
after all. 



The War of 1812 on Land 

LESSON 27 

The War of 1812 on land is not very creditable to 
the Americans. At the beginning of the war, the man- 
agement of the army was placed in the hands of weak 
generals. It was thought that they knew a great deal. 
These three generals were General Dearborn, General 
Hull and General Van Renssalaer. The armies con- 
sisted of only fifteen thousand men and the generals 
foolishly made up their minds to capture Canada. To 
do this, at least one hundred thousand men were 
needed, and able generals were needed, too. 

The first disgrace came when General Hull sur- 
rendered Detroit and all of Michigan without striking 
a blow. The other two generals did not do much bet- 



34 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

ter, although they did not surrender. The first year 
was a complete failure for the Americans on land. 

During the next year the Americans did somewhat 
better and kept the British from invading their coun- 
try, although the British general, Ross, succeeded in 
landing a force and capturing our capital, Washington. 
The President and his Cabinet and the members of Con- 
gress had to abandon Washington and General Ross or- 
dered the destruction of the government buildings. 

The Capitol and several other public buildings were 
burned. The Americans felt this insult keenly and 
blamed the British for uselessly destroying such valu- 
able property. Among the things destroyed were mod- 
els of inventions in the Patent Oflfice building. 

The great redeeming feature of the war on land for 
the Americans was the last battle of the war, the Bat- 
tle of New Orleans. In this battle a large force of 
British were completely defeated by General Andrew 
Jackson and his backwoodsmen. General Jackson 
placed his men behind breastworks made of bales of 
cotton and when the British came on they were shot 
down. General Packenham, the British commander, 
was killed. The total British loss was more than two 
thousand, while that of the Americans was only sev- 
enty-one. General Jackson was the great land hero of 
the War of 1812. The strange thing about the Battle 
of New Orleans is this : it was fought after the treaty 
of peace was signed. 



The War of 1812 on Sea 

LESSON 28 

All the disgrace of the Americans on land in the 
War of 1812 was wiped out by glorious American vic- 
tories on the sea. 

The British thought they ruled the sea and they 
had very little respect for American sailors, but, 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 35 

strange as it may seem, the Americans whipped the 
British in nearly every sea fight and nearly always they 
had to fight against stronger ships, more cannons, and 
more men. 

A few of the chief engagements were as follows: 
"The Constitution," sometimes called "Old Ironsides," 
captured the "Guerriere" and the "Wasp" captured the 
"Frolic." There were many other sea fights, but these 
will be enough to remember. 

The Americans were helped a great deal by pri- 
vateers, vessels owned by private persons and commis- 
sioned by the government to fight the enemy. There 
were hundreds of these privateers and they captured 
many British ships. 

One of the greatest naval victories is known as 
Perry's Victory. This took place on Lake Erie, where 
an English fleet was stationed. Perry was sent there 
to see what could be done in opposition to the English 
fleet. He was the kind of man who finds the way to 
do things. He cut down trees in the forest and with 
them made ships for himself. With these ships he met 
the British fleet and, after a hard fight, captured them 
all. There was great rejoicing when the people learned 
of Perry's victory. He told the world about it in his 
famous dispatch: "We have met the enemy and they 



The Treaty of Peace That Ended the 
War of 1812 

LESSON 29 

Every war is ended by a treaty of peace or an agree- 
ment between the nations that have been at war. The 
treaty is made by commissioners or representatives 
from the nations that are interested. 

The treaty that ended the War of 1812 is called the 
Treaty of Ghent. It is called so because the commis- 



36 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

sioners signed this treaty in Ghent, a small town in 
Belgium. 

The strange thing about this Treaty of Ghent was 
that the causes of the war were never mentioned in the 
treaty. Though they were never mentioned, the war 
really secured for the United States its commercial in- 
dependence — that is, no nation ever again interfered 
with the commerce of the United States. England 
never again claimed the right to search American ships 
and impress American seamen. The treaty did provide 
for the settlement of boundary disputes. 

In making the Treaty of Ghent the most important 
American commissioner was Henry Clay, the great 
compromiser. 

The War of 1812 was a benefit to our country. It 
made the people more united and the national govern- 
ment stronger. 

Another result of this war was that it started the 
American people to invest their money more in manu- 
facturing than in commerce. They wanted to be sure 
that in case of another war they would have manufac- 
tured goods of their own instead of depending upon the 
people of Europe. 

We shall remember the War of 1812 because it 
stopped European interference with our commerce, 
made our people love their country more, and started 
the Americans to become manufacturers. 



The Hartford Convention 

LESSON 30 

The Hartford Convention was a meeting of dele- 
gates from the New England States. They met to com- 
plain against Jefferson, Madison and the Anti-Federal- 
ist party. 

The people of the New England States were largely 
engaged in commerce and when Jefferson had the Em- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 37 

bargo Act passed their commerce was very much in- 
jured and naturally they lost large sums of money. 
They blamed the party of Jefferson for all their losses. 

Although the people of New England said that Vir- 
ginia and Kentucky were wrong when they passed their 
famous resolutions, now the New England States 
wanted to do almost the same thing — that is to say, 
that they did not have to obey a law passed by 
Congress and signed by the President unless they 
wanted to. 

The people of New England were also bitterly op- 
posed to the War of 1812 and sarcastically called it 
''Mr. Madison's war." 

As we have already learned that these States re- 
fused to allow their State troops to go outside of their 
States to assist the national government, we can see 
that they did not help much in the war. 

The Hartford Convention was held behind closed 
doors and they passed resolutions declaring that when 
the Constitution was violated by the acts of Congress 
it became the duty of every State to refuse to obey 
such laws. It also requested that a part of the money 
collected by the national government should be given 
back to the States for their defense. Commissioners 
were sent to Congress bearing these resolutions. 

When the war was over and peace v/as declared, the 
whole matter was dropped and the delegates of the 
Hartford Convention were justly ashamed of them- 
selves. 



The Purchase of Florida 

LESSON 31 

We have already learned that by the treaty which 
ended the Revolutionary War Florida and Louisiana 
were given to Spain. Afterwards, by a secret treaty, 
Spain ceded Louisiana to France and later Thomas Jef- 



38 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

f erson bought Louisiana from Napoleon ; but Spain still 
held Plorida at this time. Florida extended as far west 
as the Mississippi River. At least Spain made this 
claim and the Americans disputed it. This dispute 
made hard feelings between the Spaniards and Ameri- 
cans. 

Spain was weak and could not govern Florida. It 
became a hiding place for thieves, swindlers, and des- 
peradoes of all descriptions. The Indians of Florida 
were always urged by these bad people, and the Span- 
iards, too, to cross over to the American territory to 
kill the settlers and steal their horses and cattle. 

At last General Andrew Jackson, with a small force 
of men, was sent by the government to protect the 
Americans. He was just the man for that kind of 
work. He easily beat the Indians and pursued them 
into Florida, where he captured and hanged a couple of 
Englishmen who had been urging the Indians to go on 
the warpath. 

There was considerable excitement over what he did, 
but our government said he did right in hanging the 
English disturbers and to settle the whole trouble our 
government offered to buy P^lorida from Spain. Spain 
accepted the offer and our government paid her five mil- 
lion dollars and the stars and stripes were raised over 
Florida. Thus the second addition was made to the 
United States. 



The Monroe Doctrine 

LESSON 32 

In 1815 all the other nations joined together in 
Europe and completely defeated Napoleon and the 
French army in the famous battle of Waterloo. Napo- 
leon was banished to the island of St. Helena, where 
he was kept a prisoner until he died. The old line of 
kings was restored in the government of France. The 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 39 

monarchs of Europe had things their own way once 
more in Europe. In order to keep themselves safe from 
revolutions like that of France, they united and formed 
what is known as the **Holy Alliance." The following 
nations were in the ''Holy Alliance" : Russia, Germany 
and Austria. This "Holy Alliance" felt strong enough 
to manage the affairs of the world, including the New 
World. 

The first trouble came, concerning the "Holy Alli- 
ance," when Russia claimed the Pacific coast as far 
south as the fifty-first parallel of latitude. That claim 
took some of our territory, so our Secretary of State, 
who was John Quincy Adams at that time, by the direc- 
tion of the President, made a strong protest to Russia 
against her action on the Pacific Coast. Monroe said 
that European nations should not extend claims in the 
New World. A little later the South American coun- 
tries began to throw off the yoke of Spain and set them- 
selves up as free republics. The "Holy Alliance" did 
not like this and wanted to help Spain put down the 
South American republics. 

The young republics asked the Great Republic to 
assist them and it must be said that England said she 
was willing to help them, too. 

Just at this time, in 1823, James Monroe, in a mes- 
sage to Congress, issued the Monroe Doctrine, which 
is as follows: 

First : That European nations will not be permitted 
to establish any more new colonies in the New World, 
nor will they be allowed to increase the territory of 
those colonies already established. 

Second: That no European nation will be allowed 
to interfere with the South American republics. 

Third: That the United States will not interfere 
with the political affairs of Europe. 



40 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The End of European Interference 

LESSON 33 

For more than thirty years European nations had 
been interfering with the affairs of the United States. 
Sometimes they interfered with our commerce, as 
France and England did, and sometimes with our ter- 
ritory, as England, Russia and Spain tried to do. 

By Washington's policy of American neutrality, 
which was the wisest kind of a policy, our government 
did not interfere in any European affairs. Our people 
had enough to do to attend to their own affairs. 

During these thirty years the United States had 
been steadily growing in strength and her statesmen 
now had great wisdom. The time had come for our 
country to take a firm stand. Every American was 
proud of James Monroe and his fearless doctrine. 

They were all willing to uphold him in that doctrine 
even if they had to go to war. Fortunately, England 
was ready to uphold him, too. The nations of Europe 
saw that it was foolish for them to oppose both the 
United States and England, so they meekly submitted 
to the Monroe Doctrine, but it was bitter medicine for 
them. 

Since then no nation has ever interfered success- 
fully with an American republic. The United States 
has been a sort of protector to all of the other Ameri- 
can republics. Whenever a European nation attempts 
to interfere the United States government says ''hands 
off; remember the Monroe Doctrine." They all pay 
attention. 

Now that all the troubles were over, our people had 
time to develop the resources of our country. They 
went to work with a will and a time of great prosperity 
followed, known as ''the era of good feeling." 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 41 

Hamilton's Financial Measures 

LESSON 34 

Alexander Hamilton is one of the great characters 
of American history. He was bom in the West Indies 
and came to the United States just when the people 
were talking about the Revolutionary War. He was 
not twenty-one years old at the time, but he was an 
enthusiastic lover of liberty and had great force of 
mind. He helped to stir up the Americans to rebel 
against England. During the Revolutionary War he 
was the private secretary of George Washington, who 
loved him as much as he would his own son. After the 
war he became a great Federalist and did all he could 
to get the people to ratify the Constitution. 

When a new government was established and 
Washington was chosen President, Hamilton was ap- 
pointed first Secretary of Treasury. The appointment 
was an honor, though the United States treasury was 
empty at that time. It was Hamilton's work to find 
ways to make the financial credit of the United States 
as good as that of any other nation. His measures 
were as follows: First, a slight increase in the duties 
laid by the first tariff ; second, an excess or internal tax 
to be placed on liquors; third, the refunding of the 
national debt (by refunding we mean the old bonds 
were called in and the new ones issued in their place) ; 
fourth, the assumption of the State debts ; fifth, the es- 
tablishment of the United States Bank. 

It is not necessary to say any more on Hamilton's 
financial measures. They all proved successful. He 
filled the treasury with gold and made the credit of the 
United States gilt edged. 

It is too bad that such a great man as he could not 
have lived to the natural end of his life. When he was 
yet a young man he was shot down in a duel by Aaron 
Burr, who was once Vice-President of the United 
States. 



42 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Some Objections to Hamilton's Plans 

LESSON 35 

At first there was hardly any complaint against 
Hamilton's plan, because the nation was deeply in debt 
and even the States were in debt, and everybody was 
glad when a way was found by Hamilton to pay the 
debts. 

But after awhile, when the United States Bank had 
grown very strong and its stockholders very rich, many 
of the other people, especially the Anti-Federalists, 
feared that the bank would become stronger than the 
national government and that in the end it might take 
away the liberty of the people and change the republic 
into a monarchy. The Anti-Federalists often said that 
Hamilton wanted to make our government like that of 
England. Later in history we will learn how the bank 
was destroyed. 



The Tariflf Laws 

LESSON 36 

The word tariff is derived from the word Tarifa, a 
seaport town in Spain, where the people began to 
charge a tax upon goods brought there from other 
places. A tariff is a tax that must be paid on goods 
brought to this country from other nations. All tariff 
laws are passed by Congress and no State Legislature 
can pass any tariff laws. 

The first object of the tariff is to obtain money to 
pay the expenses of the national government and the 
national debts. The second object is to protect home 
industry. By protecting home industry we mean the 
placing of a tariff on goods, like those we manufacture 
here, a tariff so high that goods of that kind will not 
be imported. This shuts out foreign goods and leaves 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 43 

the whole market free for our own manufacturers. 
Many people object to a tariff for protection, saying 
that protection gives our home manufactures an op- 
portunity to charge more for their goods than they 
ought to charge. Many others are in favor of a pro- 
tective tariff, saying that it causes the people to invest 
their money in manufacturing, thereby giving employ- 
ment to thousands of people. 

Even if we have to pay a little more for the goods, 
we should not complain, because the people who work 
in American factories get higher wages than they do 
in Europe. A great many people who live in the agri- 
cultural regions, like the Southern States, believe that 
a tariff should be levied for revenue only on articles 
used by the wealthy class. The first tariff was passed 
by Congress in 1789 to raise money to support the gov- 
ernment, but there was no protective tariff until 1816, 
when the American people began to take an interest in 
manufacturing. The Northern States, being the home 
of factories, were nearly all in favor of a protective 
tariff, while the Southern States, having few factories, 
were in favor of a tariff for revenue only. They did 
not want a protective tariff. 



The Missouri Compromise 

LESSON 37 

When slavery was introduced in Jamestown in 1619 
by the captain of a Dutch ship, no one thought that it 
would become the most serious question that has af- 
fected our country. The men who bought the slaves 
were well contented with their bargain because the 
slaves worked well in the cotton and tobacco fields. At 
that time nobody saw any wrong in slavery and it 
spread to all the colonies, both north and south. 

In the North the people gradually turned against 
slavery because the climate and the work of the North 



44 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

were not suitable to negroes. The climate was too cold 
and the negroes could not stand it, and the work re- 
quired more knowledge than they possessed. 

In the South the climate was warm and just suit- 
able for the negroes and the work on the plantations 
could be done by them just as v/ell as by the most in- 
telligent persons. Consequently slavery became more 
popular in the South and unpopular in the North. In 
fact, our country divided upon that question. 

In Congress about half the members favored slav- 
ery and the other half opposed it, so every time a new 
State was to be admitted there would be a bitter dis- 
pute as to whether it would be a slave State or a free 
State. 

When Missouri and Maine asked to be admitted the 
dispute in Congress was very bitter. The question was 
finally settled by the Missouri Compromise, which was 
written by Henry Clay, the "great compromiser." 

By the Missouri Compromise it was agreed that 
Maine should be admitted as a free State, that Missouri 
should be admitted as a slave State, and that there 
should be no more slave States in the land of the 
Louisiana Purchase, north of the line of 36 deg. 30 min. 
north latitude. 

This compromise settled the slavery question for 
awhile, but not forever. 



The Unity of National Feeling 

LESSON 38 

The great trouble at the time that our Constitution 
was being made was that each of the thirteen States 
considered itself a kind of separate territory. Nearly 
all the people thought that the Constitution was only 
a contract for holding them together and that they 
could withdraw from it if they wanted to. 

This feeling showed the need of a national unity, 
without which our country could not become very sue- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 45 

cessful. A few of the things that united our country, 
made the people think and act as one, was the constant 
interference with our affairs by European nations, the 
success of the War of 1812, which showed what we 
could do, the purchase of Louisiana and Florida, which 
made the people feel proud of the way their country 
was growing, the settlement of the West and the trav- 
eling of the best men here and there throughout the 
States. 

The one thing that was against national unity and 
getting worse all the time was the slavery question. 
This curse was gradually dividing the nation into two 
separate peoples — those of the North being bitterly op- 
posed to slavery and those of the South just as much 
in favor of slavery. 

In the South the people were becoming more and 
more aristocratic because their plantations were profit- 
able, cotton was king and brought them plenty of 
money, and the negroes did all the work and waited 
upon their masters and mistresses just as if they were 
aristocrats. 

In the North the people were not aristocratic, be- 
cause they had to work for their own living and there 
was no money to spare to hire servants to wait upon 
them. 



American Inventions 

LESSON 39 

It seems strange that all the other nations in the 
world should have left for the United States the honor 
of nearly all the great inventions ; but such is the case. 
Without the Americans, there would be no cotton gin, 
no steamboat, no sewing machine, no mowing machine, 
no telegraph and no ironclad vessels. This knowledge 
alone ought to make us proud of being Americans. 



46 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney, a New 
England school teacher, in 1793. Mr. Whitney was 
spending a short time in Georgia and while there he 
noticed that much of the time of the slaves was spent 
in separating the seeds from the cotton. This was such 
slow work that one slave could clean only seven or eight 
pounds each day. So Mr. Whitney made a simple ma- 
chine to separate the seeds from the cotton and it 
worked so well that one slave could now clean six or 
seven hundred pounds each day. 

Though Eli Whitney never got much money for his 
patent, it reduced the cost of growing cotton and made 
the South richer than it had ever been. It made the 
demand for slaves greater, too. 

The question of transportation was a veiy impor- 
tant one in the United States. How to navigate the 
rivers was the great question. Flatboats or sailing 
ships could go down the rivers, but it was very hard 
for a sailing ship to go up the river against the cur- 
rent. Finally, in 1807, Robert Fulton of New York 
solved the question by inventing the steamboat. This 
first steamboat was called the * 'Clermont" and sailed up 
the Hudson as far as Albany, making the trip against 
the wind and the current. Very few people wanted to 
ride on the ^'Clermont" on that trip. They were all 
afraid that it would sink, but it was a success, after all, 
and in a few years steamboats were upon all the lakes 
and rivers, carrying thousands of passengers and much 
freight. It was not long until the steamers were cross- 
ing the Atlantic Ocean. The other inventions came 
after 1808 and will be discussed later. 



The Election of Andrew Jackson 

LESSON 40 

The election of Andrew Jackson marks a great 
change in the politics of our nation. He was the first 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 47 

President who was really one of the common people 
and he was the first one who came to the White House 
from the land west of the Appalachian Mountains. His 
election was a great victory for the West and for the 
common people. 

Andrew Jackson, like Lincoln, had a limited educa- 
tion. He never went to school more than two or three 
years and to very poor teachers. From boyhood he 
was noted for a violent temper, unflinching honesty 
and bravery. 

During the Revolutionary War, when he was only 
twelve years old, an English officer asked him to clean 
his shoes. Jackson told him, with American pride, 
though he was dressed in rags, that he would clean no 
redcoat's shoes. This angered the English officer and 
he struck Jackson with his sword, but it had no effect. 
Jackson would have died rather than please such an of- 
ficer. After that the officer never asked anyone to per- 
form such an act for him. 

When Jackson grew to be a man he was one of those 
who moved across the mountains and settled in Ten- 
nessee. We have learned how he distinguished himself 
fighting the Indians in Florida and winning great fame 
in the Battle of New Orleans. 

Among the Western people he was known as "Old 
Hickory" and it was a great joy to them to have their 
favorite for President. The Presidents before Jack- 
son were Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Mon- 
roe and John Quincy Adams. Of these men two were 
Federalists and the others were Republicans, but not 
like the Republicans of the present. These Republicans 
were followers of Thomas Jefferson. All of these Presi- 
dents were of the upper class. 

With the election of General Jackson came in many 
changes in the ways of managing politics. A new way 
was introduced of nominating candidates for the office 
of President, which has been followed ever since. 

Just as soon as Jackson became President he 
pleased the people of his own party by compelling his 



48 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

political enemies who were in office to give up their 
places. He gave all the vacant places to his political 
friends. In this way he put out more than fifteen hun- 
dred office holders. He believed that he could get along 
much better by having his friends in all offices under 
him. 

As an excuse for making so many changes he 
proclaimed, "To the victor belong the spoils." 



The Spoils System 

LESSON 41 

During Andre Vn^ Jackson's administration the "spoils 
system" was introduced into national politics. By this 
system, a successful candidate would give all the of- 
fices under him to his political friends and supporters. 
Before the days of President Jackson there had been 
but few changes in the appointments of officers. The 
holders of offices were allowed to remain in office as 
long as they were able to do the work, no matter who 
was President. 

President Jackson believed, "To the victor belong 
the spoils," which means that one had a right to all the 
profits of the victory. So President Jackson put out 
his enemies and replaced them with his friends. All 
the Presidents since did the same until the Civil Ser- 
vice Law was passed. 



A Change in the Manner of Choosing 
Electors 

Up to the time of President Jackson's election the 
people took very little interest in the election of a 
President. The reason why they took so little interest 
was because they did not have a chance to vote for 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 49 

Presidential Electors. Before the days of Jackson, the 
electors were chosen by the State Legislatures. 

But in 1828 each party named a set of electors in 
each State and the people voted on these sets to see 
which one would carry the State. This way created so 
much more interest in the election that there were 
twice as many votes cast in 1828 as there were in 1824. 
The people have followed the same way of electing 
Presidents to this day. 



Nominating Conventions, Platforms 
and Campaigns 

LESSON 42 

Nominating conventions and platforms came into 
political use during Jackson's administration and have 
been in use ever since. Before Jackson's time the can- 
didates for President and Vice-President were named 
sometimes by a caucus of party leaders and at other 
times by the State Legislatures. So you can see that 
the people had little to say about the candidates. 

Now this is all changed and the people do it by 
means of delegates and conventions. First the primary 
elections are held at the home town of the people and 
delegates are elected. These delegates go to the County 
Conventions, where State delegates are elected. The 
State delegates meet in the State Convention and elect 
delegates to the National Convention. The National 
Convention chooses the candidates for President and 
Vice-President. Each party does this, so you can see 
there will be as many candidates for President and 
Vice-President as there are parties. 

The parties nominating the candidates at the Na- 
tional Conventions issue a statement, telHng what each 
party will do for the people, if its candidate should be 
elected. This statement or promise of the party is 
called a *'platfoi-m." 



50 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

After the candidates have been nominated and the 
platforms adopted, then comes the time called the cam- 
paign. The campaign lasts for two or three months 
and during that time each party has its best speakers 
to travel all over the country and make stump speeches 
to the people trying to make plain what they intend to 
do if they win. The faults of the opposing party are 
sure to be shown up fully. If the party is rich enough, 
there may be torchlight processions, fireworks and alto- 
gether too much excitement. The time of the campaign 
is a time of education and pleasure for the people. If 
you are a good American you will never miss a cam- 
paign meeting. 

Through the passage by the State Legislatures of 
Direct Primary Laws, during recent years, now the peo- 
ple in nearly all the States vote directly for the candi- 
dates for nominations from President down to the low- 
est, instead of for delegates. The Direct Primary Laws 
were passed in order to overcome the corrupt work of 
political bosses, who had obtained too much control 
of politics. 

The Whigs and Democrats 

LESSON 43 

We have learned that at first there were two parties, 
the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The Anti- 
Federalists became the Republican party and up to 
1816 the two parties were the Federalists and the Re- 
publicans. In 1816 the Federalists carried three States 
and then that paity ceased to exist, leaving one party 
and that was the Republican party. 

In 1824 the Republican party broke up into three 
factions and each faction had candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice-President. The candidates were Andrew 
Jackson, Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams. Though 
they all belonged to the same party, they fought one 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 51 

another bitterly. When the election was over, nobody- 
was elected, because no candidates had received the 
majority of electoral votes. Jackson had received the 
greatest number, but not enough. 

As the Constitution provides, the election of Presi- 
dent then went to the House of Representatives, by 
which John Quincy Adams was elected. This made 
Jackson and his friends very angry and they united and 
formed the Democratic party, which is one of the great- 
est parties today. Those who were opposed to Jack- 
son united also and foi-med the party called the Na- 
tional Republican party, which changed to Whigs. 

The Democratic party was opposed to the United 
States Bank, to a protective tariff and to nullification. 
The Democratic party rather favored slavery in the 
South and believed in a strict construction of the 
Constitution. 

The Whigs were in favor of a United States Bank, 
a protective tariff and internal improvements, like 
roads and canals. On the subject of slavery the Whigs 
did not take a stand. The two parties, the Whigs and 
the Democrats, controlled politics from 1828 until the 
election of Abraham Lincoln. 

South Carolina and Nullification 

LESSON 44 

In 1828 Congress passed a tariff law that had so 
many high and absurd duties that it was called the 
Tariff of Abominations. This Tariff of Abominations 
was passed by political trickery. The representatives 
from the manufacturing districts wanted a high pro- 
tective tariff and while the Democrats did not want 
such a tariff they did not want to oppose it for fear it 
would keep Jackson from being elected President. So 
they added to the tariff bill higher duties on raw mate- 
rials, thinking that the manufacturing men would vote 
against the tariff bill on account of the high duty on 



52 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

raw materials. But to the surprise of all the Tariff of 
Abominations was passed by Congress and became a 
law. This tariff law did not suit any party or any part 
of the country, but it was objected to most by the 
people in the South, especially in South Carolina. 

The bill did not affect Jackson's chances for Presi- 
dent, because he was elected by a large majority. It 
caused South Carolina to pass resolutions known as the 
Protest and Exposition of South Carolina. In these 
resolutions the people of South Carolina stated what 
had already been said in the Kentucky and Virginia 
Resolutions and in the Hartford Convention — that a 
State was not bound to obey the laws passed by Con- 
gress and that it could declare any such laws null and 
void if its people so wished. This is known as the 
Nullification Act of South Carolina. 

The South Carolina resolutions were offered by John 
C. Calhoun, who was perhaps the leading man in the 
South at that time. His ideas were strongly opposed 
by Daniel Webster, who was the leading man in the 
North. Great excitement took place on account of the 
South Carolina resolutions. The people of the South 
began to disobey the tariff law and did so on the advice 
of John C. Calhoun. 

President Jackson did not care for the law himself, 
but he believed that every person should obey every 
law passed by Congress and he sent ten thousand sol- 
diers to South Carolina to compel them to obey the 
United States laws. He said that if that number was 
not sufficient he would go there himself with ten thou- 
sand more and make the people obey the laws. He also 
threatened to hang John C. Calhoun or any other man 
who would dare to oppose the government of the United 
States. The firm stand of the President made the peo- 
ple of South Carolina "draw in their horns" and meekly 
obey the law. Thus nullification was settled for the 
time. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 53 

The Destruction of the 
United States Bank 

LESSON 45 

We have already learned that the United States 
Bank was established just after the Constitution was 
adopted. The bank was a part of Alexander Hamil- 
ton's financial scheme by which the country paid its 
debts and gave itself good credit. You will also re- 
member that the bank was established by the Federalist 
party and that it was opposed by Thomas Jefferson and 
the Republicans. Still when the Republicans got pos- 
session of the government they did not interfere with 
the bank because they thought it was doing much good. 

The first charter of the bank, which lasted for 
twenty years, expired in 1811. The bank could have 
been stopped then, but a new charter was given to the 
bank in 1816 and this would expire in 1836. The bank 
had grown very strong and all its stockholders became 
very rich because all the government money had to be 
deposited in that bank and that bank would lend out the 
money and had the interest for profit. President Jack- 
son said that the bank was an un-American monopoly, 
and that it interfered with politics and that if it were 
not checked it would become stronger than the gov- 
ernment. 

But the bank had many friends in Congress and 
they passed a bill in 1832 to give the bank a new char- 
ter. This was done four years before the time the 
charter would expire, just to see what Jackson would 
do. Jackson immediately vetoed the bill to give the 
bank a new charter and it was impossible to get two- 
thirds of Congress to vote for the bill, so the bank did 
not get the new charter. 

At the next Presidential election Jackson was a can- 
didate for the second term. All the friends of the bank 
fought him as hard as they could, but he was re-elected 
by a tremendous majority. So Jackson concluded that 



54 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the people wanted him to destroy the bank. He de- 
stroyed it in this way. He ordered his Secretary of 
Treasury not to put any more money of the govern- 
ment in the United States Bank and to draw out the 
money that was in it, to pay the expenses of the gov- 
ernment. In a short time there was no government 
money in the United States Bank. 

Jackson ordered that all the government money be 
placed in the various State banks instead of the United 
States Bank and he chose those banks that were 
friendly to him. 

State Banks 

LESSON 46 

The distribution of the government money among 
the State banks caused a large number of these to or- 
ganize because they were very profitable to their stock- 
holders. When the government money was deposited 
in them they were allowed to lend it and have the inter- 
est just as the United States Bank had done. 

In addition to lending money, these State banks 
were allowed to issue paper money, which circulated 
just the same as hard money — that is, gold and silver 
coins. A great deal of this paper money was issued, 
much more than ought to have been. Everybody took 
the paper money willingly because they believed that 
they could get hard money for it whenever they wanted 
to make the exchange. 

There was so much money in circulation, counting 
all this paper money, that the times were very good. 
The West was settled up rapidly. New cities and towns 
were springing up like magic. The whole country was 
booming and everybody was making money. 

Just then a large number of people began to bor- 
row money from the State banks to speculate with — 
that is, to buy lands, bonds and farm products and to 
hold them until the prices went higher and then sell 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 55 

them and by so doing increase their fortunes. Many 
of the speculations turned out to be failures and when 
the State banks wanted their money returned they 
could not get it. Gradually the people became alarmed, 
especially those who had paper money, and they rushed 
to the State banks to have their paper money ex- 
changed for hard money, but the State banks had no 
hard money to give them. 

The value of paper money went down immediately. 
The people would not receive it willingly any more. 
Things looked very bad for the State banks. At this 
time, to make matters worse, Jackson ordered that all 
money received for public lands as tariff duties should 
be hard money. 



Surplus Government Money Given 
to the States 

LESSON 47 

A few months after this Jackson commanded, by 
the Specie Circular, that all government land and tariffs 
should be paid for in hard money. Another thing hap- 
pened which lowered still more the value of paper 
money. By surplus money we mean the money remain- 
ing over after the debts and expenses of the govern- 
ment have been paid. 

By 1835 the national debt was fully paid and the 
United States had a big income from the sale of land 
in the West and from tariff duties on imported goods. 
So, in 1836, there was a surplus of $40,000,000. What 
to do with the surplus money was a serious question, 
but finally it was decided to distribute it among the 
States. The Constitution did not give Congress any 
right to do this, so the money was given to the States 
with the understanding that they were never to pay it 
back. 



56 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The Financial Panic of 1837 

LESSON 48 

The Specie Circular and the removal of the govem- 
money to the State banks almost ruined the business of 
the country. Thousands of people took their paper 
money to the State banks and begged for gold and sil- 
ver, but the State banks had none to give them because 
they had issued too much paper money. Many of the 
State banks had to close their doors and the value of 
paper money steadily declined. At last it was impos- 
sible to get back the surplus or any hard money. Hun- 
dreds of business firms failed. Thousands of men and 
women lost everything they possessed and factories 
closed everywhere. A great many people were in need 
of food and clothing. A terrible financial panic had 
taken the place of the good times. Martin Van Buren 
was President at that time. 



Independent or Sub-Treasury System 

LESSON 49 

We have learned how the government money was 
kept in the United States Bank until 1833, when Jack- 
son destroyed the United States Bank. We have learned 
how Jackson took the United States government money 
and put it into State banks and that when the State 
banks issued too much paper money the surplus gov- 
ernment money was ordered to be distributed among 
the States as loans, with the understanding that it was 
never to be paid back. 

All this changing of government money brought on 
the financial panic of 1837. Martin Van Buren, the 
next President, had to bear all the blame, but he was 
not responsible for it. He had to bear the blame be- 
cause he was President. This financial panic swept the 
country like a hurricane, but Martin Van Buren did not 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 57 

run away from the trouble. He saw that a new way 
had to be found for the safekeeping of the United 
States money. He recommended that the United 
States build sub-treasury buildings in the principal com- 
mercial cities of the United States for the safekeeping 
of our government money. These sub-treasuries simply 
hold the money until it is needed. This method of gath- 
ering and holding the government money is known as 
the Independent Treasury System of the United States 
and has been follow^ed with success to this day. There 
is a sub-treasury building in San Francisco. 



The Oregon Country 

LESSON 50 

By the Oregon Country we mean the land of which 
the two States, Oregon and Washington, have been 
made. We have learned that at the close of the Rev- 
olutionary War the United States was bounded on the 
north by Canada, on the east by the Atlantic, on the 
west by the Mississippi, and on the south by Florida. 
We have also learned that our country got a great deal 
of fine land in the West and the control of the Missis- 
sippi by the Louisiana Purchase. We have also learned 
that our southern boundary was extended to the Gulf 
of Mexico by the Purchase of Florida from Spain. 

There was one great object left for our statesmen 
to accomplish and that was to get an outlet to the 
Pacific Ocean. This was the ambition of our great 
statesman, Thomas Jefferson. When he was President 
he had Congress set aside money to pay the expenses 
of explorers to the West. He sent out Lewis and Clark 
on the first expedition. They started from the present 
city of St. Louis, which was only a trading station 
then, in 1804. They went up the Missouri River as far 
as they could, crossed the Rocky Mountains and then 
went down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. 



58 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

An American named Gray had discovered the Columbia 
thirteen years before. The discovery of Captain Gray 
and the explorations of Lewis and Clark gave the 
United States a right to claim the Oregon Country, but 
England claimed it, too, because her explorers had vis- 
ited the same land. 

In 1818 the United States and England made a 
treaty by which it was declared that both countries 
should be allowed to settle in the Oregon Country with- 
out interference by either country unless one year's 
notice was given. This treaty is known as the Treaty 
of Joint Occupation of the Oregon Country. It re- 
mained in force until 1846, when the present northern 
boundary of the United States was agreed upon and 
our country obtained full possession of the Oregon 
Country and had, at last, an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. 
At this time Mexico claimed all the sea coast south of 
Oregon. 

The Annexation of Texas 

LESSON 51 

The question of slavery had much to do with the 
annexation of Texas. This is how slavery brought it 
about. The North was rapidly increasing in popula- 
tion and as a consequence had a majority in the House 
of Representatives. The Senate was evenly divided, 
there being at the time just as many slave States as 
free States. But the South could not hope that the Sen- 
ate would remain evenly divided because the land of 
the Louisiana Purchase had been divided by the parallel 
36 deg. 30 min. and there were more people settling 
north of that line than south of it, and naturally there 
would be more free States than slave States coming 
into the Union. So the South looked to Texas to hold 
its power in Congress. The Southerners had to hold 
their power because there was a growing feeling in the 
North that slavery was wrong and the Southerners 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 59 

feared that if they lost control of Congress laws might 
be passed against slavery. 

When Mexico obtained her freedom from Spain, a 
large number of Americans settled in Texas, which was 
then a part of Mexico. Nearly all of these became 
slave holders, because Texas had the right soil and cli- 
mate for slavery. In 1833 these settlers of Texas re- 
belled against Mexico. After three years of fighting, 
they won their freedom and made Texas the **Lone Star 
Republic." 

Texas was not long a republic before her people 
asked to be annexed to the United States. They were 
urged to do this by the Southerners, who were anxious 
to get Texas into the Union because that would make 
one more slave State and give them two more votes in 
the United States Senate. 

The North was very much opposed to the annexation 
of Texas because the Northerners did not want to give 
slavery any more power. This question was finally set- 
tled by the election of President Polk, who favored the 
annexation of Texas. When he was elected President 
the bill was passed providing for the annexation of 
Texas. Thus Texas was made a part of the United 
States. 

The Mexican War 

LESSON 52 

The Mexican War was caused by a dispute between 
Mexico and the United States over the boundary line 
of Texas. The United States claimed that the boun- 
dary line was the Rio Grande. Mexico claimed that the 
boundary was the Nueces River. This left a piece of 
disputed land between the Rio Grande and the Nueces 
River. 

President Polk did not wait to settle the dispute by 
peaceful means but sent an army under General Tay- 
lor to hold the disputed territory. The Mexicans op- 



60 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

posed this invasion by the Americans and a small bat- 
tle took place. American blood was shed on American 
soil. President Polk reported the matter to Congress 
and claimed that war had actually begun. Congress 
accepted his report and active preparations were made 
for war. 

From the beginning to the end of the Mexican War 
the Americans won a long series of easy victories. The 
Mexicans never won a battle. Finally the Americans 
captured the City of Mexico. 

The principal American generals were General 
Winfield Scott, General Taylor and General Kearny. 
General Grant was a young officer in this war and said 
in his memoirs that it was the most unjust war that 
was ever waged by a strong nation. 

When the Mexicans had lost everything and the 
Americans were in possession of their capital a treaty 
of peace was made. By this treaty it was agreed that 
the Rio Grande was the southern boundary of Texas; 
that California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, 
and part of Colorado should be ceded to the United 
States. It was agreed that the United States should 
pay Mexico fifteen million dollars for this territory. In 
addition the United States paid some three million five 
hundred thousand dollars in claims our citizens had 
against Mexico for injury to their personal property. 
This treaty is known as the Treaty of Guadalupe Hi- 
dalgo. It took its name from the little village where 
it was made. 

A fev/ years later another treaty was made with 
Mexico by which the United States purchased a strip 
of land along the northern boundary of Mexico. For 
this ten million dollars more were paid and this strip 
is known as the Gadsden Purchase, named after the 
man who made it. 

The Mexican War began in 1846 and ended in 1848. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 61 

The Settlement of Oregon and California 

LESSON 53 

The settlement of Oregon and California is a little 
different from that of the other Western States. Up 
to this time, between 1845 and 1850, the people had 
moved steadily westward, settling the land as they 
came to it. But in order to settle California and Oregon 
they skipped over more than one thousand miles of 
unsettled country. This unsettled country included the 
Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and 
the great dry plains between these ranges. The route 
of the settlers from the Mississippi Valley and the 
Atlantic States was across the two ranges of moun- 
tains and the dry plains. This was a hard and danger- 
ous journey on account of the hot sun in summer, the 
deep snow in winter, the steep mountains, and the war- 
like Indians. 

The people traveled in wagons called ''prairie 
schooners," drawn by oxen or horses. There were long 
trains of these and at night they made a circle of the 
wagons for protection against the Indians. This way 
of reaching Oregon is known in history as ''Crossing 
the Plains." The attraction of Oregon was the rich 
farming and grazing lands there. The attraction to 
California was gold, which had been discovered here 
shortly after the treaty of peace with Mexico had been 
signed. The first gold was discovered by James Mar- 
shall at Sutter's Fort, a place near Sacramento. While 
the Mexican War was going on the few Americans in 
California rebelled against Mexico and took possession 
of the government. These Americans raised a flag with 
the picture of a "grizzly bear" on it and the words 
"California Republic." They intended to make a re- 
public out of this land, but the treaty with Mexico made 
California a territory of the United States. The news 
of the discovery of gold by Marshall soon spread all over 
the world. People of every land thought that they 



62 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

could pick up a fortune anywhere in California. More 
than one hundred thousand came. By 1850 California 
was ready to become a State and was admitted into the 
Union as a free State by Congress on the 9th day of 
September, 1850. Oregon did not become a State until 
1859. 



The Abolitionists 

LESSON 54 

The Abolitionists were people in the North who 
believed that slavery should be abolished in all the 
States. Among the leading Abolitionists were William 
Lloyd Garrison, Elijah Lovejoy, Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, the authoress of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and Wen- 
dell Phillips, the great orator. 

The Abolitionists did all they could to stir up a feel- 
ing among all the people against slavery. They tried 
to make the people see that it was a great wrong and 
a terrible disgrace to our country. They did this by 
making speeches, writing poetry and stories and send- 
ing pamphlets containing their ideas to people in all 
parts of the country. The Abolitionists were intensely 
hated by the people of the South, who claimed that their 
work was causing the slaves to be discontented and 
inclined to rebel and run away. The Southerners tried 
to have the United States Post Office refuse to handle 
the literature which the Abolitionists wanted to send 
out. 

Even in the North the Abolitionists made but lit- 
tle progress at first. Everybody seemed to be satis- 
fied that the negroes should remain slaves. Often the 
leaders of Abolition were treated harshly by the North- 
ern people. Garrison was led through the streets with 
a rope around his neck. Lovejoy was shot and killed 
while defending his printing press from destruction by 
a mob. A school house, which had been put up in Bos- 
ton to educate negroes, was torn down and destroyed 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 63 

by another mob. All this shows that the Northern 
people had no use for the Abolitionists at first. But 
the time came when the feeling of the North against 
the Abolitionists changed. 

There were petitions sent to Congress against slav- 
ery. These petitions annoyed the Southern members 
and in order to stop them the Southern members and 
their friends passed what is known as the Gag Resolu- 
tions, by which Congress refused to receive any more 
petitions against slavery. John Quincy Adams, who 
was an old man at that time, denounced the Gag Reso- 
lutions very bitterly. Instead of helping slavery, 
the Gag Resolutions made many friends for the 
Abolitionists. 

The Compromises of 1850 

LESSON 55 

The Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820, as we 
have already learned. It settled the question of slavery 
for almost thirty years, but not entirely. It didn't 
keep the Abolitionists from spreading their ideas that 
slavery was wrong and should be abolished in all the 
States. These Abolitionists created such feeling that 
the Southern people began to think that Congress would 
stop slavery entirely. Up to 1850 there had been just 
as many free States as slave States and, of course, just 
as many members in the United States Senate for slav- 
ery as against it. 

But when California wanted to come into the Union 
as a free State the Southerners were greatly alarmed, 
for, should California be admitted as a free State, then 
the power of slavery would be lost in Congress. So the 
Southerners determined that California should not be 
admitted. A long and bitter dispute followed and for 
awhile it seemed as if the Union would be dissolved. 
Finally the dispute was settled by a bill that is known 
as the Compromise of 1850. This bill is known also as 



64 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the Omnibus Bill, on account of carrying so many pro- 
visions. It was prepared and brought forward by the 
great compromiser, Henry Clay. By the Compromise 
of 1850 it was agreed that California should be admit- 
ted as a free State ; that Utah and New Mexico should 
be organized as territories without regard to slavery; 
that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District 
of Columbia; and that a fugitive slave law should be 
enacted. By prohibiting the slave trade in the District 
of Columbia it is meant that there should be no buying 
or selling of human beings in that place. By a fugitive 
slave law is meant a law that allowed a slave holder to 
go anjrwhere in the United States to get his runaway 
slaves, and the same law compelled all the people to 
help the slave holder to catch the runaways. 

The Abohtionists did not like any part of the Com- 
promise of 1850 except that California should be ad- 
mitted as a free State. 



Kansas-Nebraska Bill 

LESSON 56 

Though much was expected of the Compromise of 
1850 in the way of settling the slavery question, it pro- 
duced no quieting effect. It rather made trouble in- 
stead of settling it. 

When the fugitive slave law was passed by Con- 
gress, the Southern people made a strong effort to en- 
force it in the North. The Northerners, led by the 
Abolitionists, fought the fugitive slave law as hard as 
they could. They did this by helping the negroes to 
escape to Canada. This was against the law, but they 
claimed it was on the side of right and justice. 

There was such a good system of helping the slaves 
to escape from the South to Canada, where they were 
free, that it was known as the ''Underground Railway." 
It was no railroad at all, but a secret route for slaves 
to pursue. While they traveled this secret route, food 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 65 

and other necessities were provided for them by the 
Abolitionists. When the Northern people thus helped 
the slaves the Southerners became very angry and the 
bitterness between the North and South continued to 
grow. 

While this bitterness was at its height Senator 
Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced into Congress 
in 1854 a bill called the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. This bill 
repealed the Missouri Compromise and organized the 
territories of Kansas and Nebraska, giving the people 
of those places the right to decide for themselves 
whether they wanted slavery or not. 

This way of settling slavery is known as Squatters' 
Sovereignty. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill made much 
more trouble. People from the North and people from 
the South rushed into Kansas and Nebraska and each 
side determined to have the States go its way, and 
as a result there was civil war in Kansas and Nebraska 
for a few years. This trouble kept the whole nation 
stirred up on the question of slavery. 



The Dred Scott Decision 

LESSON 57 

We have already learned that there is a Supreme 
Court composed of one Chief Justice and eight Asso- 
ciate Judges. This is the highest court in the United 
States and it has more authority than any other court 
in the world. When this court renders a decision that 
decision must stand as final. Everyone must give heed 
to it. 

It was the Supreme Court of the United States that 
rendered the Dred Scott Decision. Dred Scott was a 
negro. His master took him into the free State of Illi- 
nois and from there he was taken into territory which 
was declared free forever by the Missouri Compromise. 
On his return to Missouri he sued for his freedom on 



66 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the ground that he had been made free by his master's 
taking him into a free State. This case finally went be- 
fore the Supreme Court and the judges decided against 
Dred Scott. Their decision was that a slave was prop- 
erty, and that he had no more rights than a bale of 
cotton or any other piece of property, in court ; that his 
master might take him anywhere he pleased and that 
he would be a slave wherever he went; that neither 
Congress nor any State Legislature had any right to 
make laws interfering with slavery. The people of the 
South were overjoyed at the Dred Scott Decision. They 
thought the question of slavery was settled at last in 
their favor. In the North the Abolitionists were dis- 
appointed, but they did not stop their work. They 
fought slavery harder than ever and won more and 
more people to their side until at last all the people of 
the North took a stand with the Abolitionists against 
slavery. 

Even churches separated on the subject of slavery. 
Down South they preached that slavery was right, 
while throughout the North they preached that slavery 
was wrong. 



The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 

LESSON 58 

The Lincoln and Douglas Debate took place in Illi- 
nois about one year after the Dred Scott Decision was 
announced. It consisted of a series of speeches by Sen- 
ator Douglas and Abraham Lincoln. Douglas was the 
leader of the Democratic party and a candidate for re- 
election as a United States Senator. Lincoln was the 
leader of the Republican party and he was the candidate 
of that party, in Illinois, for United States Senator. If 
the Democrats won the majority in the State Legisla- 
ture, Douglas would be chosen Senator. If the Repub- 
licans won the majority, then Lincoln would become 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 67 

Senator, so you can see that Lincoln and Douglas were 
each trying to convince the people to believe in his 
political ideas. 

The debates attracted much attention. People came 
from far and near to hear the two great orators. Lin- 
coln spoke firmly against the extension of slavery into 
the territories. He claimed that the Dred Scott De- 
cision was unconstitutional and he said that this nation 
could not expect to exist forever, half slave and half 
free ; that it would have to be either all slave or all free. 

Douglas did not take such a firm stand as Lincoln. 
He tried to please both sides. He did not object to the 
extension of slavery. He upheld the idea of "Squatter 
Sovereignty" ; that is, that the people of the territories 
should settle for themselves the question of slavery. 

Douglas offended the South by criticising the Dred 
Scott Decision and the Southern people never forgave 
him for that. 

It might be of some interest to know whether Doug- 
las or Lincoln won the senatorship. Well, Douglas won 
the honor and Lincoln made a reputation for himself 
throughout the country, for a few years later he won 
the great honor, the Presidency of the United States. 



The Election of Abraham Lincoln 
as President 

LESSON 59 

When the time came to nominate candidates for the 
presidency in 1860 the people were greatly divided on 
the subject of politics. This division was caused by the 
bitterness over slavery. 

The regular Democratic convention could not agree 
on the subject. The Northern Democratic delegates 
nominated Stephen A. Douglas for their candidate for 
President. This displeased the Southern Democratic 
delegates, because Douglas had criticised the Dred Scott 



68 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Decision. So these Southern delegates withdrew from 
the regular convention and nominated Breckinridge for 
President. They preferred him because he believed 
that slavery was right and that the Dred Scott Decision 
was constitutional. Thus you see that there were two 
Democratic candidates for President. 

Abraham Lincoln was nominated by the new Re- 
publican party and the platform of that party de- 
manded that Congress should prevent the extension of 
slavery in the western territories and the platform 
stated further that the Republican party would not 
interfere with slavery where it was. 

In 1860 there was still another convention composed 
of men from all parties and that convention nominated 
a man named Bell for President. 

During this campaign there were many speeches 
made for and against slavery. The people were fully 
informed upon the subject. They knew what to do 
when they went to vote. They had faith in Lincoln's 
speeches and he was elected President by the electoral 
votes of all the Northern States. 

The South believed that the election meant that 
slavery should not be extended into any more of the 
western States. The Southern people believed that if 
they wished to preserve slavery any longer they would 
have to withdraw from the Union and start another 
republic with slavery for its foundation. The first State 
to withdraw was South Carolina, and she took steps at 
once to persuade the other Southern States to do the 
same. 



The Civil War 

LESSON 60 

The Civil War, which was perhaps the most ter- 
rible civil war ever fought, began in 1861 and ended 
in 1865. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 69 

The chief causes of that terrible war were slavery, 
States' rights and a want of understanding between the 
North and the South. 

By States' rights is meant, as we have already 
learned, the rights claimed by States at various times 
that they did not need to obey laws passed by Congress 
and that they could even withdraw from the Union if 
they wanted to. Under these so-called rights South 
Carolina and other slave States seceded. The following 
is a Ust of the Confederate States: Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi, Arkansas and Tennessee. 

These States organized a new country, which thej^ 
called the Confederate States of America. Their rep- 
resentatives organized a new capital at Montgomery. 
Later they made Richmond their capital. Jefferson 
Davis was elected their President and Alexander 
Stephens was elected Vice-President. They had a Con- 
gress very much like our own. 

The Confederate States prepared themselves for war 
at once. They took possession of the United States 
forts and arsenals in the South. This gave them a 
large supply of arms and ammunition, because nearly 
all the United States arsenals were in the South. The 
South began the war by trying to get possession of 
Fort Sumter, which was commanded by Major Ander- 
son, who would not turn it over to the Southerners as 
the other commanders of the other Southern forts had 
done. He would not surrender the fort. The Confed- 
erates bombarded it for three days with their cannons. 
At the end of that time Major Anderson was compelled 
to surrender, but he and his men were allowed to go 
free and take with them their personal weapons. The 
strange thing about the bombardment of Fort Sumter 
was that though the walls of the fort were shattered 
to pieces by the cannons yet not a man was killed on 
either side. 

The capture of Fort Sumter caused great excite- 
ment in the North and South. Lincoln called for sev- 



70 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

enty-five thousand volunteers. People from every 
Southern State flocked to the State capitals to form 
armies. The people of the whole country began to be- 
lieve that there would be no settlement on the subject 
of slavery without war. 



Why the South Had Little Chance to Win 
the War 

LESSON 61 

It seems strange to us now that the South should 
ever try to fight the North. It was like a twelve-year- 
old boy trying to fight a man. 

The South was very much weaker in population, in 
means of transportation, in manufacturing, and in the 
most necessary of all things, ''money." If the South- 
erners had ever looked at it wisely they would have 
remembered that the North had twenty million people 
to their six million; that the North had all the rail- 
roads and all the manufacturing, and that the North 
had many times as much wealth as the South had. 

Perhaps they were encouraged to start the war, as 
all the nations of Europe, excepting Russia, sympa- 
thized with the South, and perhaps they expected those 
nations to help them. In fact, England did help by 
giving them money, arms, and ships. 

The Southerners also thought that they had many 
friends in the North who might help them. During the 
first year of the war the Confederacy won several vic- 
tories because they got their armies together faster 
than the North did. They had better leaders at first 
and they had the benefits of the arsenals they had cap- 
tured. But when the Union, or North, blockaded the 
Southern coast so that no cotton could go out and no 
supplies could come in, the Confederates gradually 
weakened. There were times when neither the people 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 71 

nor the soldiers of the South could get enough to eat, 
let alone money. This was on account of the blockade, 
which stopped all business. 

The great wonder about the war is the remarkable 
bravery shown on both sides and the way the South 
could keep it up as long as her people did. We cannot 
help but respect them for their bravery, although we 
know they were fighting for a wrong idea. 



The Battle of Bull Run 

LESSON 62 

The first important battle of the Civil War is known 
as the Battle of Bull Run, being named after a little 
river by that name. The commander on the Union side 
was General Irwin McDowell. The commander on the 
Confederate side was General Beauregard. 

General McDowell was ordered by General Scott, 
who was the commander-in-chief of the Union army, 
to attack Beauregard. He did as he was ordered with 
thirty thousand men and the Southerners received the 
attack without flinching. While the fight was going on 
a second Confederate army came upon the same field 
and began to fight the Union army. Very soon the sol- 
diers of the Union army broke their ranks and fled. 
The Confederates hotly pursued them. 

The Battle of Bull Run produced a great change in 
the North, but gave the South altogether too much con- 
fidence. It showed the North that there was some hard 
work to be done, but it made the South feel that every- 
thing would be easy. The cry of the South was "On 
to Washington!" This meant that their intention was 
to capture Washington. The cry of the North was **0n 
to Richmond !" Richmond was the capital of the Con- 
federate States of America. This meant that the in- 
tention of the Union army was to capture Richmond 
and destroy the Confederate government. If the Con- 



72 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

federates had not stopped to congratulate themselves 
after the Battle of Bull Run, they might have captured 
Washington, for they were within twenty miles of it. 

A great many of the most important battles took 
place in the neighborhood of Richmond. The most im- 
portant leaders in the Union army were General W. 
Scott, General G. McClellan, General Joseph Hooker, 
General Burnside and General Grant, who was the best 
of them all. On the Southern side, in the same neigh- 
borhood, they had from the beginning General Robert 
E. Lee, one of the greatest of generals, and under him 
was the famous ''Stonewall" Jackson, the bravest of the 
brave, and General Beauregard. 



Emancipation Proclamation 

LESSON 63 

When the Civil War began it was not the intention 
of the Union side to interfere with the subject of slav- 
ery. At first the principal object was to break up the 
government of the Confederacy and force the seceded 
States to come back into the Union. But after the war 
had been going on for almost two years President Lin- 
coln decided that he would issue his famous ''Emanci- 
pation Proclamation," by which all slaves of the States 
controlled by the Confederacy were set free. The proc- 
lamation did not set the slaves free in Delaware, West 
Virginia, Missouri, Maryland and Kentucky because 
these States were not controlled by the Confederacy. 

President Lincoln was a very just man and he was 
willing to have our government pay for the freedom of 
the slaves so that the Southerners would not lose so 
much by having them set free, but the Southerners 
were so hot-headed that they would not agree even to 
sell their slaves. It would have been better for them 
if they had sold them. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 73 

When Lincoln issued the * 'Emancipation Proclama- 
tion" the people of the North were very much pleased, 
because it showed that Lincoln was determined to abol- 
ish slavery. It produced an opposite effect in the Con- 
federacy, because the Confederates knew that it meant 
the end of slavery if the North should win, and it 
seemed likely at this time that the North would win. 



The Civil War in the East 

LESSON 64 

Several important battles took place in the vicinity 
of Washington and Richmond. The Union soldiers in 
the East numbered more than two hundred thousand 
and they were known as the Grand Army of the Po- 
tomac. This army had for its commanders one after 
another Winfield Scott, George McClellan, John Burn- 
side, Joseph Hooker and, at the close of the war, U. S. 
Grant. 

The Army of the Potomac was opposed by the Con- 
federates, who had about one hundred and fifty thou- 
sand men and they were known as the Army of North- 
em Virginia. This army was commanded by Robert E. 
Lee, who was ably assisted by "Stonewall" Jackson and 
Beauregard. 

A few of the battles that took place between the 
Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia were the first and second battles of Bull Run, Bat- 
tle of Antietam, the Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of 
Fredericksburg, Battle of Chancellorsville and the Bat- 
tle of Gettysburg. 

The South won the battles of Fredericksburg and 
Chancellorsville, but in the other battles they lost be- 
cause "Stonewall" Jackson had been killed by one of 
his own men, thinking him one of the enemies, and also 
because they were weaker in every way. 



74 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The Battle of Gettysburg was the most important 
battle of the Civil War. General Lee had decided to 
take the war into the North and he marched his men 
as far north as Gettysburg, a small town in Pennsyl- 
vania. Here he was met by General Meade with a small 
part of the Army of the Potomac. It was about the 
first of July and the two armies met where the land 
was covered with wheat. For three days a terrible bat- 
tle raged. Great bravery was shown on both sides. 
Fifty thousand men were killed and wounded, but the 
Union army won and Lee was forced to retreat to the 
South. There was never much hope for the Confeder- 
ates after the Battle of Gettysburg. 



Civil War in the West 

LESSON 65 

When the West is mentioned in the Civil War we 
mean the Mississippi Valley, because there was very 
little fighting west of the Mississippi Valley. The ob- 
ject of the Union army in the West was to prevent such 
States as Missouri and Kentucky from joining the Con- 
federacy. These States were known as the doubtful 
Confederate States and their people were greatly di- 
vided on the war. In some families one brother would 
wear the blue and the other the gray. That gives you 
an idea of how divided they were. Another object of 
the Union anny in the West was to get control of the 
Mississippi River so that the Confederates could not 
ship out cotton or bring in supplies. 

The Confederates knew the value of the great river 
and had it guarded by strong fortifications at New 
Orleans, at Vicksburg and other forts like Fort Henry 
and Fort Donelson. The Union forces of the West were 
under command of General Grant, General Sherman 
and General Thomas. The Confederate forces were 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 75 

under the command of General Albert Sydney Johnson 
and General Pemberton. 

General Grant was very successful in the West. He 
captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson and after a 
hard fight won the Battle of Shiloh, where General 
A. S. Johnson was killed. 

General Grant's greatest victory, however, was the 
capture of Vicksburg, which was a strong fort on the 
Mississippi River and well defended. General Pember- 
ton commanded it. General Grant laid siege for several 
weeks trying to capture Vicksburg. During this time 
he kept up a constant cannonade and allowed no sup- 
plies to go to Vicksburg. Finally the Confederates 
were forced to surrender on account of starvation. 
When General Pemberton asked General Grant what 
terms he would allow in the surrender, Grant replied 
that his terms would be unconditional surrender. This 
is how General Grant got the nickname of * 'Uncondi- 
tional Surrender Grant." To reward Grant for this 
great victory Lincoln made him commander-in-chief of 
the Union army. After that the South won no more 
victories. The surrender of Vicksburg took place the 
day after the Union army in the East won the Battle of 
Gettysburg. 

Admiral Farragut captured New Orleans. The 
Union side now had entire control of the Mississippi 
and everybody knew that the power of the South was 
completely broken. 



Sherman's March to the Sea 

LESSON 66 

Next to General Grant, General Sherman was per- 
haps the wisest Union general. Yet there were many 
people, at that time, who said he was crazy, just as the 
small boys used to say about Columbus. 



76 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

General Sherman, toward the close of the war, 
thought it would be a good idea to destroy as much of 
the property of the South as possible in order to dis- 
courage the Southern people from continuing the war 
any longer. 

So General Sherman and his army started on their 
famous march from Atlanta to the sea. His army was 
spread out so that it stretched across a distance of fifty 
miles. As the soldiers marched they destroyed every- 
thing that was of any use to an army. They tore up 
railroad tracks, burned bridges, com and hay, killed 
horses and cattle and left a ruined country behind them. 
The famous song, "Marching Through Georgia," should 
always make you think of Sherman's March to the sea. 

After Sherman and his army marched from Atlanta 
to the sea, they marched northward through South 
Carolina, destroying everything as they did in Georgia, 
and finally they joined General Grant, who was now the 
commander-in-chief of the Army of the Potomac in 
Virginia. 

Many people think that Sherman's march to the sea 
and the destruction of property were very cruel things 
to do, but in war ''all things are fair," and the march 
was one of the necessities of war. It helped to bring 
about the end. 



Lee's Surrender 

LESSON 67 

The very same day that Sherman started on his 
march to the sea General Grant, with the Army of the 
Potomac, began his march to Richmond. At this time 
the Aimy of the Potomac contained one hundred thou- 
sand men, while Lee had in the Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia from seventy to eighty thousand men. 

Though the Confederate army was greatly out- 
numbered by the Union army, which was far better 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 77 

supplied with food and ammunition, the Confederates 
had some advantages, because, during their last cam- 
paign, their soldiers fought behind entrenchments. 
There were many battles fought. Grant could not 
break the Confederate line, so he would march around 
them, or, as they say in war, he would outflank them. 
Whenever Grant went by them they were compelled to 
fall back to get between Grant and Richmond in order 
to save their capital. These movements were con- 
tinued for weeks, fighting and marching all the time. 
Finally Grant compelled Lee to cross the James River 
and he now began the siege of Petersburg and Rich- 
mond. Up to this time in this campaign Grant had lost 
fifteen thousand soldiers. The Confederates had lost 
heavily, too, but not half so many. The Confederates 
were in need of food, clothing, arms, and ammunition. 
It is said that they went into more than one battle with 
empty stomachs and empty cartridge belts as well. 

General Lee tried to make General Grant retreat by 
sending General Early with seventeen thousand men to 
threaten Washington, but Grant had plenty of soldiers, 
so he protected Washington and continued the siege of 
Richmond. At last Richmond fell. The members of 
the Confederate government escaped and General Lee 
tried to do so, but he was stopped and compelled to sur- 
render with his army. General Grant showed that he 
was really a great man by not humiliating General Lee 
and his soldiers. He gave orders that all the Confeder- 
ates should be treated with the greatest respect. They 
were given food and clothing and the Northern soldiers 
took the Southern soldiers' hands in friendly grasp. 



The American Navy During the Civil War 

LESSON 68 

When the Civil War began the American navy was 
very small, because our government had not paid much 



78 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

attention to keeping up the navy for many years 
before. 

When the Civil War broke out it was necessary to 
improve the navy and our government did improve it 
very rapidly. New ships were built and many ships 
were bought and armed with cannons. In a short time 
the navy became quite powerful. The greatest use 
that was made of the navy during the Civil War was 
to blockade the Southern seaports and thus prevent the 
Southern people from exporting their cotton, tobacco, 
and sugar. When they were stopped from exporting 
their products they could get no money to carry on 
the war and the people were compelled to do without 
manufactured articles, for they had no factories of 
their own and they could not import on account of the 
blockade. 

Lincoln was the man who ordered this blockade. It 
was no easy thing to blackade the South because it had 
a sea coast of 25,000 miles. But President Lincoln 
knew that if he stopped the South from getting money 
and manufactured articles that this would help to 
bring the war to an end. 

During the first part of the war our country came 
very nearly getting into trouble with England. The 
Confederate government sent two commissioners named 
Mason and Slidell to England to try to get help for the 
South. They were on their way across the Atlantic 
Ocean when they were captured by one of our warships 
and taken back to the IJnited States. England was 
very angry over this and threatened war. President 
Lincoln did not want any more war, at that time, so 
Mason and Slidell were given up and our government 
apologized for taking them. England accepted the 
apology and war with her was averted. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 79 

The Alabama Claims and the 
Geneva Awards 

LESSON 69 

While the Civil War was going on the government 
of the Confederate States spared no efforts to do in- 
jury to the commerce of the North. The Confederates 
had no navy, so they did not try to blockade the North- 
ern ports, but they got as many ships from England as 
they could to engage in the work of capturing ships 
belonging to the Northern merchants. These ships, 
known as commerce destroyers, were obtained with the 
help of the English government. The three that did 
the most damage to our commerce were the "Alabama," 
the 'Tlorida" and the "Shenandoah." Altogether the 
Confederate commerce destroyers captured more than 
2500 merchant ships and, besides, they frightened our 
merchants so much that they sold more than half of 
their other ships. This was a great injury to our 
commerce. 

Seven years after the war was over our country de- 
cided that England should pay for a part of the dam- 
age done by such ships as the "Alabama," because if 
England had not helped the South to get these ships 
the South never could have got them. 

To avoid war our country agreed to settle the dam- 
ages by submitting the claims to commissioners from 
both countries. These commissioners met in Geneva, 
a city in Switzerland. 

After hearing evidence from both sides, it was de- 
cided by the commission that England should pay 
$15,500,000 to the United States for the injury that was 
done by such ships as the "Alabama." 

This is called the Geneva award, the settlement of 
the Alabama claims. 



80 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The Monitor and the Merrimac 

LESSON 70 

When the State of Virginia seceded the commander 
of the United States navy yard at Norfolk sank the 
American ships in the harbor rather than let them fall 
into the hands of the Confederates. Afterwards the 
Confederates raised one of these ships, called the 
'"Merrimac," and covered it heavily with railroad iron, 
thus making the first ironclad war vessel. 

About the same time the Confederates were cover- 
ing the '"Merrimac" with iron, John Ericsson of New 
York was building an ironclad vessel called the '"Moni- 
tor." The deck of the "Monitor" was almost level with 
the water and in the middle of the deck was a round tur- 
ret, revolved very slowly by machinery, giving the gun- 
ners a good opportunity to use their cannon. 

About this time a number of American ships were 
in Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James River. 
All these ships were made of wood, like nearly all war- 
ships at that time. The "Merrimac" attacked these 
Union ships and destroyed the "Cumberland" and the 
"Congress," which were two powerful warships. Then 
the "Merrimac" went away and meant to come back 
the next day and destroy the other Union ships. She 
had nothing to fear because cannon balls could not 
injure her. 

There was great alarm in the North and the people 
feared that the "Merrimac" would destroy the entire 
Union navy. But during the night the "Monitor" ar- 
rived and when the Confederates saw her they called 
her the "Yankee Cheese Box" on a raft. 

When the "Merrimac" returned the next morning to 
finish her work of destruction the "Monitor" was there. 
The two ironclads met and a terrible battle was fought. 
Neither vessel was badly injured, but the "Merrimac" 
was compelled to steam away from Hampton Roads 
and the Union fleet was saved. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 81 

This battle between the "Monitor" and the "Mer- 
rimac" taught all the world that the day of wooden 
warships was passed forever. 



Results of the Civil War 

LESSON 71 

The principal result was the abolition of slavery. 
Slavery was the only disgraceful condition that was 
ever allowed to exist under the American flag and the 
Civil War removed that stain. It made the United 
States really a land of liberty. The Civil War caused 
three amendments to be made to the Constitution of 
the United States. These amendments are known as 
the 13th, 14th and 15th. The 13th amendment gave 
all the negroes their freedom. The 14th amendment 
gave all the negroes all the rights of American citi- 
zens, except the right to vote. The 15th amendment 
gave them the right to vote. 

Besides the above results, the Civil War showed the 
whole world that the United States had the best and 
bravest soldiers that ever lived. The Civil War did 
away with the sectional feeling — that is, a feeling in 
the North against the South, or vice versa. The coun- 
try became more thoroughly one. The brave men of 
the North forgave the brave men of the South, after 
having fought each other as hard as they could. They 
met on many a battle field in the years that followed the 
war and talked over the times gone by in a friendly 
manner. Only cowards who were afraid to go to war 
tried to keep up the bitter feeling between the North 
and the South. When the Spanish- American War 
broke out the boys that wore the gray were just as 
ready to fight for our flag as the boys that wore the 
blue, and they did fight, side by side, although fighting 
the Spaniard w^as only play for them. No war in all 



82 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the history of the world caused such a large number 
of delightful stories as the Civil War. We never tire 
while reading about heroes of the North and South. 



Reconstruction 

LESSON 72 

In the history of the United States, Reconstruction 
means bringing back the seceded States to the Union. 
If Lincoln had lived there would not have been any 
great trouble about this, because he was wise and kind 
hearted, and he would have found a way agreeable to 
both North and South. But just at the close of the 
Civil War President Lincoln was assassinated, as you 
know, and the Vice-President, Johnson, became Presi- 
dent. President Johnson claimed that States could not 
secede and that therefore they had never been out of 
the Union. He thought that their Representatives and 
Senators should be received in Congress just as they 
had been before the Civil War. 

Several members of Lincoln's Cabinet and of Con- 
gress said that Johnson was wrong and that the Con- 
federate States should be treated as conquered terri- 
tory and that none of the people of these States should 
be allowed to hold office without first taking the oath 
of allegiance to the United States. This difference be- 
tween President Johnson and Congress made a long 
and dreary dispute, but finally Congress triumphed. 
War Governors w^ere sent to the Southern States and 
they had the assistance of government soldiers to main- 
tain their authority. 

Many others, rightfully called ^'Carpet Baggers," 
went from the North to the South and got the negroes 
to vote for them and put them into office, where they 
made themselves rich by unfair means. The time after 
the war was about as bad for the South as during 
the war. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 83 

After a number of years all the wrongs were righted 
and the Southern people were given back their rights. 
They took possession of all the offices, their Representa- 
tives and Senators vv^ere received by Congress and re- 
construction was accomplished. 



The Tenure of Office Act— The Impeach- 
ment of President Johnson 

LESSON 73 

President Johnson was a stubborn, selfish, and self- 
willed man. When he thought he was right nobody 
could change his mind. The dispute between him and 
Congress became very bitter over reconstruction, but 
there was a two-thirds majority against him in Con- 
gress, which could do things in spite of his vetoes. 

One of his bitterest enemies was Secretary Stanton 
of Lincoln's Cabinet. Congress was afraid that Presi- 
dent Johnson would remove Secretary Stanton, so the 
two houses of Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act 
in order to stop him from removing Stanton. 

The Tenure of Office Act requires the President to 
get consent of the Senate before he can remove any 
officer whose appointment was subject to the approval 
of the Senate. President Johnson paid no attention to 
this act, saying that it was unconstitutional, and he 
did remove Secretary Stanton. 

For removing Secretary Stanton he was impeached 
by the House of Representatives and tried by the 
United States Senate, with the Chief Justice presiding. 
There was considerable excitement over the trial. All 
the Senators had to vote whether he was guilty or not 
and a two-thirds vote was required to convict him. 
Upon counting the votes it was found that they were 
one vote short of a two- thirds majority. So President 
Johnson was saved by one vote. And the man who cast 



84 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

that vote did not do so for Johnson, but for the United 
States. It would be such a disgrace to throw the Presi- 
dent of the United States out of office. 

If Johnson had been found guilty, he would have 
been put out in disgrace, and it is doubtful who would 
have taken his place, because there was no Vice-Presi- 
dent and there was no law of presidential succession at 
that time, as there is now. 



The New South 

LESSON 74 

Of course the South is just as old now as it ever 
was, but the way of its people in making a living is new 
to them. That is why we speak of the new South. 
Before the Civil War the cornerstone of Southern so- 
ciety was slavery. The black man did all the work. He 
raised the cotton and carried it to market. He and the 
people like him took care of all the beautiful homes in 
the South. It was thought then that the people would 
never be able to get along in that hot climate without 
slaves. 

But the Civil War and President Lincoln set all the 
slaves free by the Emancipation Proclamation. Then 
the Southerners had to start in an entirely new way. 
They had little money to begin with because they had 
lost it all in the war. They expected hard times, but 
they were agreeably disappointed. Everything seemed 
to improve. Many new railroads were built. Thou- 
sands of new people settled there. The population in- 
creased and in a few years the South was producing 
twice as much cotton as it had produced before the 
war. Now it produces four times as much. Before the 
war all the cotton was shipped to the North or exported 
to Europe to be manufactured. Now there are many 
cotton factories located in the South and they turn out 
great quantities of cotton goods. Having factories in 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 85 

the South saves all the freight on cotton and makes a 
great deal of work for the Southern people. Many coal 
and iron mines have been discovered in the South also, 
and these discoveries have helped to increase manufac- 
turing. Down in Texas a petroleum district has been 
discovered and it produces great quantities of coal oil. 
Nearly every city of the South has improved. The 
people seem to be glad that slavery is a thing of the 
past. 

The Purchase of Alaska 

LESSON 75 

We have already learned how Jefferson purchased 
Louisiana from France for $15,000,000; how Florida 
was purchased from Spain for $5,000,000; how Texas 
became a part of the United States in 1845; how we 
gained California, Nevada, New Mexico and other 
places by treaty with Mexico after the Mexican War; 
and how we gained the land known as the Oregon Coun- 
try by treaty with England. Now we shall learn that 
the United States bought Alaska from Russia for 
$7,200,000, while Andrew Johnson was President, in 
1867. 

Just as the people said that Jefferson was foolish 
when he bought Louisiana, so they said that Johnson 
made a mistake when he purchased Alaska. Recent 
events have shown that the purchase of Alaska was a 
wise move for the United States. Alaska is very rich 
in gold, copper, coal, furs and fish. 

Treaty of Washington 

The Treaty of Washington was the settlement of 
the Alabama claims and several other disputes. We 
have already learned how the Alabama claims were set- 
tled and how the Trent affair was settled. By the 
Treaty of Washington the present boundary between 



86 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the State of Washington and British Columbia was 
agreed upon. It was also decided what rights Ameri- 
can fishermen are entitled to when fishing in Canadian 
waters. 



Tariff Questions in Recent Times 

LESSON 76 

We have already learned that a tariff is a tax placed 
upon imported goods for the general support of the 
government, that all the tariffs are passed by Congress, 
and that they must originate in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. 

We have also learned that there are two kinds of 
tariffs — the revenue tariff and the protective tariff. 
The revenue tariff is for the purpose of raising money 
to conduct the government and for no other purpose. 
The protective tariff is for the purpose of protecting 
home industry — that is, to put such a high duty on ar- 
ticles that may be manufactured here so that they can- 
not be imported from other countries with any pros- 
pect of profit. This is done to favor our own manufac- 
turers, so that they may build factories here, employ 
our working people, pay them a fair wage, and sell 
their products at higher prices than they would get if 
the duty on such goods was not so high. 

Since the Civil War the principal difference between 
the Republicans and the Democrats has been on the 
subject of tariff. The Democrats believed in little pro- 
tection, claiming that this government should be run 
for the benefit of all the people and not for a few man- 
ufacturers. The Republicans claimed that protection 
is best for the country, saying that when the manufac- 
turers are prosperous then all the rest of the people 
are the same. 

When Cleveland was President and both houses 
were Democratic, the Wilson Tariff Bill was passed. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 87 

This bill lowered nearly all the duties. Bad times fol- 
lowed. The people changed the President and both 
houses of Congress. When the Dingley Tariff Bill was 
passed all the duties were raised. Times became better 
almost at once and until Taft's term the people con- 
tinued to vote for a high protective tariff. 

During President Taft's administration another 
tariff bill was passed. This bill lowered some duties 
and raised others. It was called the Payne-Aldrich Bill. 
The people were not satisfied with this bill and as a 
consequence elected Woodrow Wilson and a Democratic 
Congress. 

When Wilson became President the Underwood- 
Simmons Tariff Bill was passed. It was expected that 
this bill would reduce the cost of living, but it failed to 
do so. In 1919 the cost of living was higher than it ever 
was before. But we must not blame tariff laws alone 
for this. The great number of ships loaded with pro- 
visions which were sunk by the German submarines in 
the World War had something to do with it, too. Be- 
sides, the purchasing power of money, on account of 
its plentifulness, became much less. Wages went up 
for everybody and so did everything else. 



Corporations 

LESSON 77 

A corporation is an organization established accord- 
ing to law, in which a large number of persons may 
invest their money by buying shares and stock. A cor- 
poration acts as a single individual. Corporations are 
formed for the purpose of conducting large enterprises, 
like the building of railroads, the construction of fac- 
tories, the drilling of oil-wells and the developing of 
mines. It takes large sums of money to do such things 
and through a corporation people all over the world 
may buy stock or shares and thereby put their money 



88 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

into a big enterprise. Nearly all the corporations, that 
are good, pay their stockholders from five to ten per 
cent a year. But many of the corporations are not good 
and people should not buy stock in any of them unless 
they know all about the corporation or have a good 
adviser to direct them. 



Trusts 

To avoid fighting each other for business, some- 
times a large number of corporations in the same line 
of business form what is called a 'Trust." They do 
this to control the prices of their products ; that is, if 
they want to raise the price they can do so, and if they 
wish to lower the price they can do so also. They raise 
their prices to increase their profits, and when they 
lower them it is for the purpose of destroying any com- 
pany that tries to do business contrary to their wishes. 
The principal trusts at the present time are Standard 
Oil Trust, Sugar Trust, Meat Trust, Tobacco Trust, 
Farmers' Machinery Trust, and the Steel Trust. Con- 
gress has passed laws to regulate all trusts. 



Labor Unions 

LESSON 78 

When the people who possess the money began to 
form very large organizations, the working men, who 
did their work, concluded that they would have to or- 
ganize in order to protect themselves. These working 
men formed unions in the cities or towns where they 
lived. They sent delegates to the State meetings and 
the State meetings sent delegates to the National meet- 
ing. So, now, the working people have the American 
Federation of Labor, which takes care of the affairs of 
the working people in all parts of the United States, 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 89 

Labor Unions have done a great deal of good in 
shortening the day of labor, in increasing the wages, 
in preventing children from working, and in compelling 
the employers of labor to protect the health of the 
working people. 

Samuel Gompers, for several terms the president of 
the American Federation of Labor, did more than any 
other man to unionize the working people of this 
country. 



Recent Application of the 
Monroe Doctrine 

LESSON 79 

We will recall to mind that the Monroe Doctrine is 
not a law of the United States, but only a part of one 
of the messages of President Monroe. In that mes- 
sage President Monroe said that no part of the new 
world was to be subjected to any future colonization by 
Europe, and that no European country would be per- 
mitted to interfere with the affairs of the American 
republic. 

This message was issued in 1823 for the purpose of 
preventing the Holy Alliance from helping Spain to 
gain possession of the South American republics. All 
the European nations paid attention to the United 
States and the South American republics were allowed 
to exist. 

During the Civil War an event took place which 
brought the Monroe Doctrine into use. Vv^hile our coun- 
try was very busy with our own troubles an army of 
French soldiers was sent to Mexico. They started a 
French Empire and drove the Mexicans from their cap- 
ital. They made an Austrian nobleman, named Max- 
imilian, emperor of Mexico. All this was contrary to 
the Monroe Doctrine, but the United States could not 
interfere because the Civil War was going on. When 



90 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the Civil War was over our country sent 50,000 soldiers 
to the boundary of Texas and Mexico and our Secretary 
of State asked the French government to respect the 
Monroe Doctrine. The French soldiers were called 
home at once. The Mexicans returned to their capital, 
captured Maximilian, and executed him. Thus the Re- 
public of Mexico was restored. Another trouble oc- 
curred in 1895. At that time England and Venezuela 
were having trouble over the boundary line between 
British Guiana and Venezuela and our country asked 
the English to settle the trouble according to the Mon- 
roe Doctrine. President Cleveland took steps to find 
out the right boundary and he notified England that 
he would enforce the Monroe Doctrine. The English 
government concluded to settle the trouble with Ven- 
ezuela by arbitration — that is, by judges, as Cleveland 
suggested. Thus the authority of the United States 
was increased and the Monroe Doctrine was upheld. 

Still another application took place in 1902. At that 
time Germany, England and other nations wished to 
collect some debts which Venezuela owed them. In 
order to compel the payment of these debts England 
and Germany blockaded the ports of Venezuela. 
Through the influence of the United States all the 
claims were settled by arbitration of The Hague. 



The Hague Tribunal 

LESSON 80 

The United States has done a great deal toward 
settling troubles through arbitration. By arbitration 
we mean having each side that is interested in a dis- 
pute appoint a certain number of judges, sometimes 
called commissioners. These judges of both sides meet 
together and hear evidence from both sides and then 
render a decision and make a declaration stating what 
they think is right. This generally settles the dispute 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 91 

and thus much trouble is avoided. In this way the 
trouble between Venezuela and England was settled. 
The coal miners' strike was settled, in Pennsylvania, by 
arbitration. 

The idea of arbitration became international when 
the Czar of Russia asked all the nations of the world to 
send representatives to The Hague. The Hague is a 
city in Holland and there these representatives formed 
an international court which is known as The Hague 
Tribunal. In this court all the disputes between nations 
may be settled peaceably. It was hoped that by means 
of The Hague Tribunal there would be left no more 
cause for war. Instead of going to war about a dispute 
it can be settled in The Hague Tribunal. Several very 
troublesome disputes have already been settled by it, 
but, strange to say, it could not settle the trouble be- 
tween Russia and Japan and therefore could not pre- 
vent that war. When the World War was beginning no 
attention was paid to The Hague Tribunal. Like 
treaties and everything else, it was not even thought of. 



Spanish-American War 

LESSON 81 

The Spanish-American War took place in 1898. 
Many people said that the cause of it was the blowing 
up of the battleship "Maine" by the Spanish in the har- 
bor of Havana, a city in Cuba. 

Recently the United States went to the great ex- 
pense of raising the "Maine" to investigate the cause 
of the tragedy. It will be remembered that the sinking 
of the "Maine" caused the death of more than two hun- 
dred and forty sailors, and, although at the time it was 
the general belief that the Spanish had blown up the 
Maine, yet that was not the cause of the Spanish- 
American War. 



92 P^ORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The real cause of the war was the sjonpathy of the 
American people for the patriots of Cuba, who had long 
been struggling against Spain for independence. On 
account of the cruelty of the Spanish government to 
these patriots, the Americans were always inclined to 
help them. So when the "Maine" was blown up they 
insisted that the United States should declare war 
against Spain, and this was done by Congress. 

The war was all one-sided — the case of a lion fight- 
ing a mouse. Spain was weak and her army and navy 
were the weakest in the world. Two naval fights were 
won by the Americans, one at Manila by Admiral 
Dewey and the other at Santiago harbor by Admirals 
Schley and Sampson. These two fights, you might say, 
decided the v/ar and destroyed the navy of Spain. The 
Americans lost very few men and not a single ship, 
while the Spanish lost everything. The battleship "Ore- 
gon" made a famous trip around Cape Horn and 
reached Santiago in time to take part in the great vic- 
tory. The only land battle was on San Juan Hill, which 
was won by the Americans. In this battle Ex-President 
Roosevelt, then a colonel, distinguished himself. 

By the treaty of peace which ended the war, Cuba 
was given her independence and the United States took 
control of the Philippines and Porto Rico. To give 
Spain something to make up for her great losses, the 
United States government paid her $20,000,000 for the 
Philippines. 

A few heroes of the Spanish-American War besides 
all those mentioned are Richard Hobson, who risked 
his life trying to bottle up the Spanish fleet in the har- 
bor of Santiago, and General Wheeler, who was a Con- 
federate. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 93 

The Panama Canal 

LESSON 82 

For many years the commercial nations hoped to dig 
a ship canal through the Isthmus of Panama. Two 
routes were proposed, one to the north, known as the 
Nicaragua route, and the other to the south, known as 
the Panama route. 

The first nation to seriously attempt the building 
and digging of the canal was France, under the direc- 
tion of the French civil engineer, De Lesseps, the man 
who built the Suez Canal. 

The French people labored there many years and 
spent about $100,000,000. They finally had to give up 
the work on account of bad sanitary conditions and the 
want of more money. Much of their valuable machin- 
ery remained there and rotted. 

In 1902 the Americans concluded that they would 
try and complete the canal, no matter how much it 
cost. The Americans decided to take the southern 
route by way of Panama, the same route the French 
had tried. When the Americans began, Panama be- 
longed to the Republic of Colombia and that republic 
hindered the Americans in their work. Then the Ameri- 
cans encouraged the people of the little strip, called the 
Isthmus of Panama, to start a revolution against the 
Republic of Colombia. The Americans advised them 
and of course they won. Thus was born another small 
republic and it is called Panama. The Americans then 
gave France $40,000,000 for their rights and priv- 
ileges. 

All the nations being now satisfied, the Americans 
began the great work and it continued until it was 
finished. They built little towns along the line of the 
canal, all supplied with good water and properly sew- 
ered and kept in healthy conditions. These towns are 
connected by railway. Nearly all the work was done 
by steam shovels which were owned by Americans. All 



94 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

the labor was done by negroes and Japanese. The cost 
was $300,000,000 and the expectation that the canal 
would be completed in 1915 was fulfilled. 

Its completion was celebrated by the famous 
Panama-Pacific International Exposition. This great 
exposition took place in our own city, San Francisco. 

Colonel George W. Goethals, a great civil engineer, 
directed the construction of the canal and Dr. William 
Gorgas controlled the sanitary system with wonderful 
success. 

The completion of the Panama Canal made shipping 
from Europe to the Pacific Ocean ports much cheaper 
and faster. It saved the shippers the long and danger- 
ous trip around Cape Horn. It made San Francisco 
a greater commercial city and increased its population. 
It is one of the great achievements of modern engineer- 
ing and will remain forever a monument to the enter- 
prise of our country. 



Presidents After Civil War Up to 1896 

LESSON 83 

General U. S. Grant, a Republican, served two 
terms, from 1868 to 1876. 

To succeed Grant the Republicans nominated 
Rutherford B. Hayes and the Democrats Samuel J. Til- 
den. The election resulted in a dispute, both parties 
claiming the victory. The trouble was settled by a 
commission of fifteen members, seven Democrats and 
eight Republicans, appointed by Congress. Hayes was 
declared elected. 

In 1880 the Republicans elected James A. Garfield 
and he was assassinated in 1881. His Vice-President, 
Chester A. Arthur, completed his term. 

In 1884 the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine 
and the Democrats Grover Cleveland. After an excit- 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 95 

ing campaign, Cleveland was elected. He received 
many "mugwump" Republican votes. 

In 1888 Benjamin Harrison, the Republican candi- 
date, defeated Cleveland, but in 1892 the Democrats 
succeeded in defeating Harrison by electing Grover 
Cleveland for a second term. 



Presidents Assassinated 

Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes 
Booth on April 14, 1865 ; James A. Garfield by Charles 
J. Guiteau in July, 1881 ; and William McKinley by Leon 
Czolgosch in September, 1901. 



Early History of California 

LESSON 84 

After Cortez conquered Mexico and found so much 
gold there, which he took away from the Aztecs, the 
Spaniards became greedy for more gold and sent out 
many expeditions to seek other lands where the 
precious metal might be found. 

One of these expeditions was under the command 
of Juan Cabrillo, who was the first European to set eyes 
on the coast of California. This was in 1542. No par- 
ticular name was applied to California at that time. It 
was thought of as a worthless stretch of land because 
no gold was found there and much of it seemed to be 
a desert. 

The name California was first used in a Spanish 
romance. It was the name of an imaginary land where 
all the inhabitants had all their weapons and utensils 
made out of gold. This imaginary land was supposed 
to be occupied by a fierce race of women called Amazons 
and the men there had no say. 

In the course of time they gave this name (Califor- 
nia) to the land that Cabrillo had discovered. 



96 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Little did they think that the discovery of gold in 
California later would make the country worthy of the 
name in the romance. 

The second person to explore the coast of California 
was Sir Francis Drake, an Englishman, who was mak- 
ing a trip around the world. He is supposed to have 
spent a winter in Drake's Bay. He named the land 
''New Albion," in honor of England, which the poets 
called Albion. 

California remained a Spanish province, unsettled, 
for many years. About the time the thirteen colonies 
were getting ready to fight for liberty, in 1769, the 
first settlement was made at San Diego by the Spanish 
missionaries, called Franciscans, under the leadership 
of Father Junipero Serra, who was an energetic chris- 
tianizer of the Indians. 

Through the efforts of Father Junipero Serra, a 
chain of missions was established from San Diego to 
San Francisco. 

All the beautiful names we are now so proud of were 
given to different places in California by these mis- 
sionaries. 

A few of the names are San Francisco, San Mateo, 
Santa Clara, San Jose, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, 
Ventura, San Diego, Santa Cruz and Los Angeles. 

Wherever the missionaries established a mission 
they built it of sun-dried adobe bricks. They always 
built a number of these buildings together for the hous- 
ing and keeping of the Indians. 

These Indians were christianized and taught how to 
raise grain, grow vegetables and herd cattle and sheep. 

The Indians were spoken of as the children of the 
missions. 

Before the period of the missions ended, many 
Spanish and Mexicans settled in the rich valleys of 
California, where they lived an easy, delightful life, 
almost like royal families. 

The work was done by the Indians. The principal 
products were wool, hides and tallow, which they sold 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 97 

to traders who called on occasional visits when on their 
way down the coast. 



Mexican Rule in California 

LESSON 85 

Mexico became a republic in 1822 — that is, her peo- 
ple threw off the yoke of Spain at that time. As soon 
as Mexico became a republic many envious people be- 
gan to spread the report that the missionaries in Cali- 
fornia were not loyal to the republic and still preferred 
the rule of Spain. This caused the Mexican govern- 
ment to confiscate all the missions — that is, the Mexi- 
can government took all the property belonging to the 
missionaries. The Fathers then left the missions and 
there was no one to look after the Indians, so gradu- 
ally they drifted back to their wild ways. The land of 
California was given to the new settlers in grants called 
Mexican Land Grants. This was done to encourage 
people from Mexico to settle in California. The people 
who held these grants called themselves Californians, 
but they were only Mexicans and a few Spaniards from 
old Spain. 

Half-breeds called greasers made up a large part of 
the population. 

All the people led a careless, lazy life. They were 
fond of music, dancing, gambling, fine clothes and beau- 
tiful saddles. 

Their women were very beautiful when young but 
homely when age came on. The same might be said 
about the men. 

They made their money by raising cattle and sheep. 
They paid little attention to agriculture. They used 
wooden plows and a bough of a tree for a harrow. 

The Californians did not do as much good as the 
missionaries. They spent too much of their time in 



98 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

enjoyment, such as smoking, riding, and gambling. 
The Indians did what httle work that was done. 

These Mexican people held California up to the 
time of the Mexican War, when California became a 
part of the United States of America. 



California from the Mexican War to the 
Present Time 

LESSON 86 

The Americans had long been looking toward Cali- 
fornia with hungry eyes. They wanted it so that they 
might have an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. One noted 
explorer had traveled through California before the 
Mexican War and urged the few American settlers he 
saw to take possession of the land. This explorer was 
John C. Fremont. Nothing was done until the war 
broke out and then they raised the "Bear Flag" and 
took possession of the good land California. 

When the Mexican War ended it was decided that 
California should become a part of the United States. 
This was one of the agreements of the treaty of peace 
that ended the war. 

Strange to say, in less than one year after the 
treaty was made gold was discovered by James Mar- 
shall at Sutter's Fort, a place near the city of Sacra- 
mento. 

Marshall and his friends tried to keep their discov- 
ery a secret, but the great news got out all over the 
world. 

California was really a gold State. People flocked 
in from every other State and country. 

Towns and cities sprang up as if by magic. The 
miners found a great deal of gold, yet many were dis- 
appointed and turned their attention to the rich lands 
which were worth more than the gold. Those who got 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 99 

possession of large tracts of land and held them be- 
came very wealthy. 

In 1850 California was ready to become a State 
and was admitted to the Union on the 9th of September 
of that year. It was never an organized territory. 

The first governor was Peter Burnett. 

In the early days there was much trouble on ac- 
count of bad people who came here attracted by the 
gold excitement. These people did as they pleased 
until the good people organized a "vigilance commit- 
tee." This committee hanged a few bad men and 
thereby made things respectable in San Francisco. 

The first transcontinental railroad reached San 
Francisco in 1869. Before that time the passengers 
were carried in stage coaches and the mail went by 
"Pony Express." 

California was advancing before it became a part 
of the United States and it is still advancing. It has 
led the world in gold, fruits, and many other products. 



American Inventions 

LESSON 87 

Our first great inventor was Benjamin Franklin, 
who invented a fuel-saving grate and by means of a 
kite discovered that lightning was only electricity. 

We have already learned that Robert Fulton in- 
vented the steamboat, that Eli Whitney invented the 
cotton gin, that Elias Howe invented the sewing 
machine. 

Now we shall learn that Samuel F. B. Morse in- 
vented the telegraph system and Cyrus W. Field suc- 
ceeded in laying a cable under the ocean from the 
United States to Europe, making it possible to send 
messages from the new to the old world in a few sec- 
onds of time. 



100 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Then came the electric lights, invented by Thomas 
A. Edison. Next Edison invented the electric motor, 
which made electric cars possible. 

The moving pictures and the phonograph are also 
inventions of Thomas A. Edison. A few other Ameri- 
can inventions are the submarine by Holland, the ma- 
chine guns by Lewis and Browning, the aeroplanes by 
the Wrights, the telephone by Bell, the airbrake by 
Westinghouse, and the wireless telegraphy by Mar- 
coni, who is partly American. 

We have shown the people how to do their sewing, 
reaping, how to light their houses, send their messages, 
and, as if they could not sing and talk enough them- 
selves, we have given them the pleasure of the phono- 
graph, filling every home with choice music and giving 
the little dog an opportunity to hear his master's voice. 

American Railroads 

LESSON 88 

The first railroad in the United States was built 
in 1830. It was a very simple affair, but it showed 
the possibilities of the iron rail. American promoters 
were quick to take advantage of this. Gradually the 
means of locomotion were improved. 

Short lines were built at first, connecting the prin- 
cipal cities of the Atlantic Coast, such as New York, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. 

Then it was thought impossible to run a railroad 
successfully across even the Allegheny Mountains, 
much less the Rocky Mountains. 

All the obstacles of the mountains have been over- 
come. The first transcontinental railroad was com- 
pleted in 1869 and is known as the Southern Pacific. 
Leland Stanford, C. P. Huntington, Charles Crocker, 
and Mark Hopkins were the great promoters of the first 
transcontinental railroad. Now there are five other 
such lines. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 101 

There are branch railroads running through every 
State where it pays to have them. There are more 
miles of railroad in the United States than in all the 
rest of the world put together. 

Railroads have done much good in settling the coun- 
try by carrying products back and forth, and they make 
traveling safe, rapid and delightful. 

By means of railroads you may sit on a velvet cush- 
ioned seat and be carried over plains, mountains, and 
rivers, giving you views of beautiful scenery, while 
you go at the rate of forty miles an hour, and all for 
three cents a mile. 



Mining and Manufacturing 

LESSON 89 

The United States has so many different products 
and occupations that even if our coasts were blockaded 
for years the people would never suffer for any neces- 
sity of life. 

We have mining regions that would produce all the 
minerals we needed. We have factories all over the 
country to supply us with manufactured articles. The 
farmers would produce foodstuffs sufficient to keep us 
from starvation. 

Large quantities of coal and iron are mined in the 
Appalachian Mountains. Petroleum wells are numer- 
ous in Pennsylvania, California, and Texas. We get 
our supply of copper from the shores of Lake Superior, 
Montana, Colorado, and Arizona. Nevada, California, 
and Colorado are noted for gold and Alaska produces 
gold. The most important quicksilver mine is in New 
Almaden, California. 

There was not a great amount of manufacturing 
until the people found out in the War of 1812 that if 
they did not manufacture what they needed they would 
have to go without in time of war. This caused them 
to invest their money in manufacturing. 



102 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

At first most of the manufacturing was done in the 
New England States and the Middle Atlantic States, 
where water power was easily obtained, but since the 
introduction of steam power and electric power manu- 
facturing has spread all over the United States. 

Wherever you find a good harbor or railroad center 
you will also find many people engaged in manufac- 
turing. 



Commerce and Growth of Cities 

LESSON 90 

The great increase of agricultural, mining, and man- 
ufactured products has naturally made a widespread 
increase in the commerce of our country. There have 
been times when it has been impossible for the railroads 
to obtain cars enough to carry the products which the 
people wanted shipped to various points. 

Our foreign commerce has steadily increased since 
the War of 1812 and especially since the Civil War. For 
many years past our country has exported more goods 
than it has imported, leaving the balance of trade with 
us. This helps to give our country prosperity. 

The principal exports are cotton, tobacco, machin- 
ery, cars, locomotives, canned fruits, flour, canned fish, 
lumber, meat, and many other things. 

The principal imports are silk, tea, coffee, sugar, 
coal, tin, wines, crockery, diamonds, hemp, toys, india 
rubber, and many other things. 

While the country has been increasing in manufac- 
turing and commerce the people have been gradually 
gathering together in great cities. They soon began to 
enjoy life in the cities better than they did life in the 
country. Many wise men think that this is not best 
for the welfare of our country. The farming and the 
stock raising must be kept up in order that the people 
may have an abundance of food. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 103 

After the Civil War New York had less than one 
million population, now it has five millions and is the 
largest city in the world. 



The Advancement of Education 

LESSON 91 

Nearly all the perfect system of education in the 
United States has grown up since the Civil War. Of 
course there were schools before the war, and many 
good ones, too, but there were none of such general ex- 
cellence as we have now. 

Before the Civil War many of the teachers were 
men who could get nothing else to do. They were 
broken down soldiers or cripples who could not make 
their living in the hard struggle with able-bodied men. 

Many of these did not have legal certificates. The 
schools were run in the winter time, when very little 
work could be done on the farm on account of the rain 
or snow. The few summer schools were for young 
children who could not work. Many of the older chil- 
dren attended school for the fun they might have. 
Many books tell how the unfortunate teachers were 
tormented. 

No able-bodied men would teach school because the 
wages were so low. The women worked for ?15 per 
month. They would board around and put up with what 
they could get to eat. 

Now all is changed. Teachers are well paid and no- 
body is allowed to teach without a high class legal cer- 
tificate. The children are compelled to go to school 
nearly all the year. Everyone has a chance to obtain a 
good education. 

There are three grades of schools in this system — 
the grammar school, the high school, and the State uni- 
versity. No one is charged at these schools, except for 
board. All things needed are provided for by the State 



104 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

and county taxes. Sensible children should go through 
the grammar school at least. 



Noted Colleges 

LESSON 92 

There is no other country that has so many noted 
colleges as ours. Almost every State has one or more. 
The following are a few of the most famous: Har- 
vard College, in Massachusetts; Yale College, in Con- 
necticut; Princeton College, in New Jersey; Cornell 
College, in New York ; Ann Arbor College, in Michigan ; 
Chicago University, in Illinois; and California Univer- 
sity and Stanford, in California. 

All these great institutions of learning will com- 
pare favorably with the great schools of Europe. 
Among our greatest educators are Horace Mann, who 
did a great deal to introduce the present system of edu- 
cation; Colonel Parker, who improved the methods of 
teaching, and David Starr Jordan, who was the first 
president of Stanford University. 



Presidential Campaign of 1896 

LESSON 93 

The Republican candidate was William McKinley of 
Ohio and his Democratic opponent was William J. 
Bryan, a great orator of Nebraska. The principal sub- 
jects of discussion were Free Coinage of Silver and the 
Gold Standard. The Democrats upheld the former and 
the Republicans the latter. Bryan went from city to 
city expounding his ideas to immense gatherings of 
people, while every day trainloads of people went to 
Canton, Ohio, to hear McKinley speak. 

In the election the Republicans won and William 
McKinley became President. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 105 

During McKinley's first term good times returned. 
Wages began to improve and likewise the prices of all 
products. There was no more discussion about Free 
Coinage of Silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. 

McKinley was a great advocate of the protective 
tariff system. And under his direction a model tariff 
bill was passed. This satisfied all the manufacturers. 

In 1900 W. J. Bryan was his principal opponent 
again, but the people showed their contentment with 
McKinley's ideas by re-electing him for a second term. 
Much was expected of him, but his career was ended 
by assassination in September, 1901. The whole nation 
mourned him. 



Theodore Roosevelt 

LESSON 94 

When McKinley was assassinated Theodore Roose- 
velt, who was Vice-President, became President. 

Roosevelt had spent his early manhood on cattle 
ranges out West. He had organized the Rough Riders 
for the Spanish-American War and he had distin- 
guished himself in this war at San Juan Hill. He was 
greatly admired by the rank and file all over the coun- 
try. He was looked upon as an assertive man who was 
not afraid to stand for what he believed was right. 

He was a writer and speaker of great force. He 
loved to appeal directly to the people. 

Completing McKinley's second term, he felt obliged 
to carry out McKinley's plans, and did so to the best of 
his ability. 

The people elected him President in 1904 to give 
him a term entirely his own, and in 1908 a great many 
of his friends wished him to run again, but he declined 
and suggested that William Howard Taft be given the 
great honor. 



106 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Roosevelt's administrations are particularly mem- 
orable for his successful beginning of the Panama 
Canal, the sending of our fleet of sixteen battleships 
around the world to impress all nations with our inter- 
est in world affairs, and the passage of the Reclamation 
Act, and also by adding to our national forests an area 
of forty-three million acres. 



William Howard Taf t 

LESSON 95 

Taft was elected President in 1908. His opponent 
was W. J. Bryan, who thus made his third unsuccessful 
campaign for the Presidency. In this respect Bryan 
was like the Great Compromiser, Henry Clay, and, like 
him, he could say: "I would rather be right than be 
President." 

Taft as President meant well, but the people were 
restless on account of the constantly rising cost of liv- 
ing. They believed that someone was to blame and nat- 
urally they blamed the President. The Progressive Re- 
publicans turned against him and helped the Democrats 
to elect an opposition House of Representatives in 
1910. 

His tariff law, the Payne- Aldrich Bill, was not pop- 
ular and after much trouble with Congress in getting 
his reciprocity plan with Canada passed it was rejected 
by Canada. 

Theodore Roosevelt, his friend, turned against him, 
became the leader of the Progressive Republicans and 
was so much in earnest as such that in 1912 he divided 
the Republican party and ran for President as the can- 
didate of the Progressive Republicans. 

Taft was the candidate of the regular Republicans, 
but the division in his party gave the victory to the 
Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 107 

Conservation 

LESSON 96 

On account of its apparently unlimited resources, 
our country has earned the reputation of being care- 
less and wasteful of its natural wealth. 

Forests have been cut away without any regard for 
the future. What the lumber-makers did not destroy 
forest fires finished. No one thought of planting trees 
to replace those that had been cut down. 

The winter freshets have been permitted to do much 
damage to the rich soil. Much of it has been cut up 
with ditches and washed away. 

The deposits of minerals have been exploited almost 
as recklessly as the forests. The idea seemed to be to 
get all that was possible and leave nothing in return. 

Gradually, far-seeing, thoughtful men began to rec- 
ognize the harm that was being done. Among these 
were Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania and Senator 
Francis Newlands of Nevada. 

Through their efforts, assisted by Theodore Roose- 
velt, laws were passed to conserve the forests, minerals, 
and the water. 

No greater thing was ever done for the benefit of 
posterity. The thoughtless exploiters are now under 
control. 



The Reclamation Act 

LESSON 97 

This law was passed June 17, 1902. It is a law for 
redeeming the desert lands of the West. It permits the 
money obtained from the sale of lands by the Federal 
government to be used in the building of dams to hold 
surplus water. Francis Newlands was the author of 
this law. 



108 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Under this law great dams, capable of holding im- 
mense quantities of water, have been built. 

This water is distributed through pipes and ditches 
to the dry regions where there is considerable fertility. 
Hundreds of thousands of acres in this way are irri- 
gated and readily produce fine crops of alfalfa, grain, 
fruit, vegetables, and almost everything that grows. 
This irrigation is carried on extensively in Colorado, 
Utah, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, Ari- 
zona, New Mexico, and California. 

Thus many new homes are made for the people and 
the wealth of the country is greatly increased. 

The most noted of these dams for the reclamation 
of the arid regions are the Arrowrock Dam on the Boise 
River and the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona. 



Election Reforms 

LESSON 98 

The Australian ballot is used now in nearly all the 
States to preserve the secrecy of the ballot. Under 
this system the ballots are given to the voters at the 
voting precinct by the election officers and each voter 
has the opportunity to secretly mark on his ballot just 
what he wants and nobody can tell afterwards how he 
voted. 

The Initiative gives the private citizens an oppor- 
tunity to draw up any bill they may wish and if they 
secure the required percentage of signatures it must 
be submitted to all the people at an election. If it re- 
ceives sufficient votes, it becomes a law, regardless of 
the Legislature. 

The Referendum gives citizens the right to get up 
a petition and thereby compel the submission of any 
bill passed by the Legislature to the voters for their 
approval or rejection. If it fails to get a majority of 
the votes, it is rejected and is not a law. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 109 

The Recall gives citizens the right to get up a peti- 
tion, signed by the necessary percentage of voters, 
against any public officer with whom they are dissatis- 
fied, and compel him either to resign or submit himself 
at a new election to the judgment of the people. 

The Direct Primary gives the voters the privilege 
of choosing at the polls their own leaders and candi- 
dates. Nearly all the States have given up the con- 
vention and now make their nominations by means of 
the direct primary. Instead of voting for delegates to 
the convention, the people vote directly for the person 
whom they desire to be their candidate, from the Presi- 
dent down to the lowest officer. 

Woman Suffrage has been a political question for 
many years, but the justice of giving women the right 
to vote was not recognized until recently. Many promi- 
nent men and women have always advocated that they 
should be given this privilege, because "taxation with- 
out representation is tyranny." 

Wyoming, in 1889, was the first State to permit 
women to vote. Utah was the next. Then came Colo- 
rado. The other States were slow to follow in this 
respect. California adopted woman suffrage in 1911. 
In 1919 an amendment to the Constitution granting 
suffrage to all eligible women was passed by Congress 
and submitted to the States for adoption. 



Woodrow Wilson 

LESSON 99 

When the Democratic delegates met at Baltimore in 
1912 they felt they had the opportunity to nominate a 
candidate who would be elected President. Their fa- 
vorites for the nomination were Champ Clark of Mis- 
souri and Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey. Both were 
deserving men and, at first, the former had the advan- 
tage of more supporters in the convention. 



110 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

W. J. Bryan, who changed his support from Clark 
to Wilson, turned the tide and Woodrow Wilson was 
nominated. 

On account of the division in the Republican party, 
the regulars supporting William H. Taft and the Pro- 
gressives Theodore Roosevelt, it was a certainty that 
Woodrow Wilson would be elected. He carried forty- 
four States, receiving the largest electoral vote ever 
given to a presidential candidate. 

To add to his victory he carried with him a majority 
in each house of Congress. After many years the en- 
tire government was in the hands of the Democratic 
party. 

Woodrow Wilson had been president of Princeton 
College and had resigned that position to become gov- 
ernor of New Jersey. Like Roosevelt, he was a writer 
of history and an able public speaker. He was well 
fitted to carry out his forward-looking ideas. • 

Immediately after his inauguration, March 4, 1913, 
he began his work. In his first message to Congress 
he disregarded presidential precedent by delivering his 
message personally to the members of both houses of 
Congress. 

Under his direction the following were passed and 
became laws : The Underwood-Simmons Tariff Bill, the 
Income Tax Law, the Clayton Law, and the Federal 
Reserve Law. 

The Underwood-Simmons Bill reduced the tariff on 
many important commodities in the hope of reducing 
the high cost of living. 

The Income Tax Law provided for a tax on large 
incomes to make up for what might be lost by reduc- 
ing the tariff. It took part of the burden from the 
poorer people and laid it on the richer. 

The Clayton Law broke up the great monopolies 
and trusts by forbidding unfair methods of business 
and the same law gave protection to labor unions by 
declaring that labor was not a commodity and that 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 111 

labor unions must be allowed freedom to carry out 
their plans. 

The Federal Reserve Law created a new banking 
system, reducing the power of great banking centers 
and endeavoring to make it impossible for any combina- 
tion of capitalists to bring about a financial panic. 

The greater part of Wilson's first term was harassed 
by the troubles of the World War. Wilson did his best 
by international correspondence to keep this country 
out of the war in an honorable way. 

In 1916 Woodrow Wilson was renominated by the 
Democrats. The united Republicans nominated Judge 
Charles E. Hughes, an Associate Justice of the United 
States Supreme Court. After an exciting campaign 
Woodrow Wilson was re-elected and became the great 
war President. 



Mexican Troubles 

LESSON 100 

Woodrow Wilson fell heir to Mexican troubles. They 
began during Taft's term. In 1911 a revolution broke 
out there and General Porfirio Diaz, who had ruled 
Mexico for many years, was forced to surrender the 
government. Francis Madero, his successor, was as- 
sassinated shortly after he assumed office. Then Gen- 
eral Huerta became the dictator. 

The trouble in Mexico affected the people of the 
United States. Many of them had big investments 
there in mines, oil wells, and tracts of land. These 
investors suffered greatly through the destruction of 
their property. President Wilson refused to recognize 
Huerta and he sent an expedition to Vera Cruz, which 
made Huerta give up his dictatorship. 

Then Carranza was elected president of Mexico and 
Villa, the bandit, began his operations, going so far as 
to murder Americans in New Mexico. 



112 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Divisions of our regular army were sent to the Mex- 
ican border and General John Pershing was instructed 
^ to capture Villa. The Americans pursued him far into 
Mexico, but they did not succeed in capturing him. 
Greater troubles, brewing in Europe, forced the Ameri- 
cans to give up the pursuit. President Carranza had to 
take entire control of his country's affairs. 

In 1919 there was still trouble along the frontiers 
and over property rights in Mexico. 



Amendments to the Constitution 

LESSON 101 

The sixteenth amendment gives Congress the right 
to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever 
source derived. 

The seventeenth amendment provides for the elec- 
tion of two United States Senators from each State, 
elected by the people thereof for six years. 

The eighteenth amendment prohibits the manu- 
facture, sale, or exportation from, within the United 
States, of all intoxicating liquors for beverage pur- 
poses. This amendment is proclaimed to take effect 
January 16, 1920. The nineteenth amendment pro- 
vides for woman suffrage throughout the United 
States. This amendment was passed by Congress in 
1919, but at this date awaits adoption by the States. 



The Causes and Beginning of the 
World War 

LESSON 102 

On June 28, 1914, the Crown Prince, Archduke 
Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hun- 
gary, was assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 113 

Austria claimed that the murder was committed by 
Serbian revolutionists and sent an ultimatum with 
terms impossible of acceptance, July 23, 1914, and on 
July 28 declared war. 

Montenegro came into the war as an ally of Serbia. 

Russia at once protested against Austria-Hungary's 
action and at once mobilized her troops. 

On August 1, 1914, Germany, as an ally of Austria- 
Hungary, declared war on Russia and on August 3, 
1914, Germany declared war on France. 

On August 3, 1914, Germany began to invade Bel- 
gium. Great Britain joined with France and Russia as 
an ally and declared war on Germany on August 4, 
1914. 

When the Germans invaded Belgium they expected 
no serious resistance. Much to their surprise the Bel- 
gians resisted them bravely at every step. For days 
the Belgian forts at Liege impeded the German ad- 
vance, but at last, with their heavy cannons, they bat- 
tered the forts to pieces and overran the country. 

The English landed 100,000 men across the channel 
to help the French. Still the Germans moved steadily 
forward in their first drive for Paris. 

The battle line was two hundred miles long. Seven 
hundred and fifty thousand men were engaged. For 
weeks the fighting was continuous. The German artil- 
lery seemed to be irresistible and all-powerful. 

The French and the English armies were steadily 
forced back. The French government moved from 
Paris to Bordeaux. On September 3, 1914, there was 
talk of the surrender of Paris throughout the world. 

The only hope for the Allies was that the Germans 
would wear themselves out in their eagerness to cap- 
ture Paris. 

On the east the Russians assailed the Austrians and 
the Germans with Cossack fierceness, captured the 
province of Galicia and menaced eastern Germany. 

The Japanese declared war on Germany and laid 
siege to the German stronghold in China. 



114 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Between September 11 and September 15, 1914, the 
Allies won their first great victory, the Battle of the 
Mame. General Joffre of the French army was the 
hero of the hour. Paris was saved. The Germans were 
forced to retreat. The Allied world rejoiced. 

While these moves were taking place on land, the 
British navy drove every German vessel from the seas. 
They fled to home ports or were interned in neutral 
harbors. Others were captured or sunk. 

The British navy began the blockade on Germany, 
which was maintained to the end of the war. 



Our Country During the Beginning of the 
World War 

LESSON 103 

During the terrible turbulence in Europe, from Au- 
gust 1, 1914, to April 6, 1917, our country, under the 
wise direction of President Woodrow Wilson, remained 
serene and at peace. 

The President asked all the people not to take sides 
in discussing the war. He enjoined everyone to be care- 
ful in this respect. 

On September 3, 1914, the President asked Con- 
gress to impose war taxes sufficient to produce $100,- 
000,000 to overcome the deficit in the United States 
Treasury caused by the cessation of importation, the 
countries at war having ceased to export. 

At the beginning of the war the people of this coun* 
try were somewhat fearful and business was checked 
for awhile, but when the Allies began to draw their sup- 
plies of food and ammunition from this country our 
people enjoyed great prosperity. 

In spite of the President's warning, the people nat- 
urally took sides concerning the war. From the be- 
ginning the majority favored the Allies, but the Cen- 
tral Powers had many strong supporters among those 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 115 

whose ancestors came from Germany or Austria and 
also among those who had an inborn hatred of England. 
There is evidence that the German government 
maintained a propaganda in this country to influence 
our people in favor of the Central Powers and against 
the Allies, but it did not accomplish its purpose. 



The World War from 1915 to March, 1918 

LESSON 104 

The year 1915 brought Portugal, Italy, and San 
Marino to the side of the Allies and Bulgaria to the side 
of the Central Powers. Turkey had gone against the 
Allies late in 1914. 

The Allies, with the combined fleets of Great Britain 
and France, tried to enter the Dardenelles and capture 
Constantinople, but failed after suffering serious losses. 

Britain's great leader. Earl Kitchener, was lost at 
sea, June 5, 1916. Lloyd George rose up, ably filled his 
place, and became Premier. 

George Clemenceau was the great civil leader of 
France. 

A few of the leaders of the Central Powers were 
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Carl I of Austria-Hun- 
gary, Von Hindenburg, Von Mackensen, Von Luden- 
dorff , and Von Hertling. 

Vittorio Orlando was the great Premier of Italy. 

The greatest naval battle was fought when the Ger- 
man fleet came out into the North Sea and met the 
British fleet in the battle of Jutland, May 31, 1916. The 
fighting was fearful while it lasted. Both the British 
and the Germans lost important battleships, but the 
German fleet was forced to run to harbor for safety. 
The Germans claimed this as a victory, but they never 
came out after another. Admiral Sir David Beatty 
commanded the British fleets in the North Sea. 



116 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

When Italy entered the war her armies, under Gen- 
eral Cadoma, helped the Allies a great deal by fighting 
the Austrians and Hungarians, in the mountainous re- 
gion, along the northeastern frontier of Italy. Suffer- 
ing great hardships, they made considerable of an ad- 
vance, but when Russia fell a victim to the Bolshevists 
under Lenine and Trotsky the Germans and Austrians 
swooped down upon the Italians, crushed Cadorna's 
armies and invaded Italy almost as far as Venice. All 
that Italy had gained and more were lost. 

The fighting in France was mostly trench fighting. 
Each side maintained a system of trenches more than 
two hundred miles long. Back of these trenches on 
each side heavy lines of artillery were mounted. The 
space between the trenches was known as **No Man's 
Land." On each side there were frequent, bloody at- 
tacks. High above the trenches, aeroplanes, the eyes 
of the army, circled, dived, dropped explosive bombs, 
and obtained information. Many aerial fights between 
aeroplanes took place. 

For nearly six months the Germans tried to cap- 
ture Verdun, but failed, after sacrificing immense 
losses. 

The Germans punished Russia severely. They broke 
the spirit of the Russian army, captured hundreds of 
thousands of her soldiers, and invaded all Poland and 
the shores of the Baltic Sea. Finally Russia gave up 
entirely and Lenine and Trotsky made a treaty of peace 
with the Central Powers. 

Features of the World War 

LESSON 105 

The startling feature of the World War, from the 
beginning until the Americans took a prominent part, 
was the remarkable success of the German army. It 
certainly proved itself a powerful war machine, able to 
get almost anything it went after. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 117 

A second feature was the German submarine. De- 
spite the greatest vigilance on the part of the Allied 
navy, submarines of Germany were always lying in the 
pathways of ocean commerce. Their deadly torpedoes 
sent about twenty merchant ships, with their valuable 
cargoes, to the bottom of the sea every week for awhile. 
Occasionally an Allied warship went down a victim of 
the destructive torpedo. 

When the great liner "Lusitania" was sunk by a tor- 
pedo from a German submarine on May 5, 1915, 1150 
lives were lost and 114 of them were Americans. Sev- 
eral prominent Americans were among the victims. 
This awful loss sent a thrill of horror through the heart 
of the civilized world and led America into the war. 

The third feature of the World War was the studied 
policy of cruelty on the part of the Germans. This is 
shown in the killing of innocent people, the harsh treat- 
ment of their numerous prisoners of war, and in the 
wanton destruction of property, like destroying public 
buildings and cutting down orchard trees. The fourth 
feature was their frequent zeppelin raids on England. 
At a great height, looking like silver cigars in the skies, 
the Zeppelins would come sailing over even London, 
dropping bombs, scaring all the people, especially the 
women and children. The English were powerless to 
fight the Zeppelins until they became expert in the use 
of the war aeroplanes. The last great zeppelin raid on 
England was made on the night of October 19, 1917. Of 
the squadron of thirteen zeppelins that came that time, 
several never returned. 

The fifth feature was the sterling bravery and des- 
peration of the French soldiers. They bore the brunt 
of the most persistent German attacks for years with- 
out a word of complaint. They made good their deter- 
mined cry, "They shall not pass!" The whole world 
marveled at their heroic endurance. 



118 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The Causes of Our War with Germany 

LESSON 106 

The people of the United States were decidedly 
peaceable. In fact, they were opposed to even prepara- 
tion for war. 

But the insolent acts of Germany could not be borne 
without complaint on our part. 

We complained when the "Lusitania" was sub- 
marined and its passengers murdered without warn- 
ing. We complained when GeiTnany disregarded 
treaties, calling them ''scraps of paper." We com- 
plained bitterly when Germany broke her solemn prom- 
ises not to interfere with neutral ships engaged in 
commerce. 

Finally, when Germany announced in February, 
1917, that she had decided to let her submarines attack 
all vessels trading with the Allies, our government con- 
cluded that there was nothing else for us to do but 
to declare war, and this was done by our Congress on 
April 6, 1917. 

President Woodrow Wilson, who had tried his best 
to keep us out of war, said that we should go to war and 
fight to the bitter end in order to make the world safe 
for democracy, even if it cost us the last drop of our 
blood and the last dollar of our money. 



The United States Declares War Against 

Germany — Preparation for 

the Contest 

LESSON 107 

On April 6, 1917, the Congress of the United States 
declared that a state of war existed between this coun- 
try and Germany. Very few people understood the 
seriousness of this declaration. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 119 

Preparations to make a showing worthy of the 
great republic began almost at once. 

To get the necessary soldiers and sailors Congress 
passed the Selective Draft Law. 

On June 5, 1917, all the males between 21 and 31 
years of age were registered for service in the army 
and navy. The unfit among the registrants were sifted 
out by examining boards. Those who were strong and 
able were sent to training camps, located in suitable 
places, and put through a course of intensive training. 

Germany spent forty years to build up her great 
army. In less than one year we were forced to create 
ours. The direction of all our people, men and women, 
was turned to war. 

The farmers raised crops to supply the extra food. 
The manufacturers devoted their energy to producing 
suppHes, guns, and ammunition. The women did Red 
Cross work day and night, providing against the worst. 

To get the necessary money to carry out the im- 
mense plan of the war, heavy taxes were laid on many 
articles and there were five campaigns for the sale of 
United States bonds. No one complained about the 
increase in taxation and the people bought the United 
States bonds according to their means. Those who 
could not buy bonds bought War Savings Stamps. 
Every person was fully in earnest. 

By July 1, 1918, our country had an army of more 
than 2,000,000 soldiers and 1,000,000 were in France 
under General John Pershing, who had been chosen 
commander-in-chief of the American forces. 

How the transports that carried our soldiers across 
the Atlantic Ocean escaped the deadly submarines is a 
triumph to be credited to our American navy and that 
of Great Britain. Hardly a transport was lost. 

In France the intensive training was continued, 
warehouses and railroads were built, ample hospital 
room was provided, and careful provision made for a 
serious conflict. 



120 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The End of the World War 

LESSON 108 

From March 21 to July 15, 1918, the Germans in 
large force drove steadily toward Paris, overcoming all 
opposition. The Allies made heroic efforts to stop their 
progress, yet feared that the French capital would be 
captured. It seemed impossible to stop the invading 
Germans. 

By the 15th of July, 1918, more than a million 
Americans had arrived safely in France. General 
Pershing commanded these Americans. General Haig 
commanded the British. General Foch commanded the 
French and was also commander-in-chief of all the 
Allied armies. 

Just when the Germans felt sure of their prize, the 
city of Paris, they ran against determined opposition 
at Chateau Thierry, where for the first time they met 
American soldier boys, who were anxious for the en- 
counter. 

A terrible battle ensued. Many Americans met a 
glorious death that day, but the Germans were cap- 
tured and slain by the thousands. They were forced 
to retreat in order to save their army. 

This victory gave all the Allies heart to fight and 
from that day on the English, the French, and the 
Americans won victory after victory, until the Ger- 
mans were retreating all along the line. The Hinden- 
burg line was broken at last. 

In addition to the losses the German army sus- 
tained, the German sailors of the fleet in the Kiel Canal 
mutinied and started a revolution, which spread all over 
Germany. The Kaiser was forced to abdicate and fled 
to Holland. 

On November 11, 1918, the Germans, completely 
crushed, very humbly signed the Armistice. We can 
easily remember the rejoicing of our people on Novem- 
ber 11, 1918. 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 121 

The Peace Conference 

LESSON 109 

So that the great cost of the World War, in human 
life and in money, should not be entirely lost, it was 
decided, shortly after the Armistice, to hold a Peace 
Conference in Paris. All the Allied countries sent dele- 
gates to this Conference. The four great delegates 
were Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Lloyd 
George of Great Britain, Premier George Clemenceau 
of France, and Premier Vittorio Orlando of Italy. 

After many weeks of discussion, a covenant or con- 
stitution was made. This covenant provides for the 
settlement of all disputes that may arise between na- 
tions. Through this covenant it is hoped to have world 
peace forever. This is the league of nations. 

The second great work of the Peace Conference was 
the making of the Treaty of Peace, which Geimany 
accepted. The German people think that the terms of 
this treaty are terrible. They did not know until they 
had read these terms that they had lost the war. 

By the Treaty of Peace which the Peace Conference 
gave to the German delegates at Versailles, Germany 
agrees to give Alsace and Lorraine back to France, two 
small provinces are given to Belgium, the republic of 
Poland is acknowledged as a free and independent na- 
tion, all the German colonies in Africa and Asia are sur- 
rendered to the Allies, the German navy is reduced to 
15,000 sailors, the German army is reduced to 100,000 
soldiers, all the articles, such as paintings, captured 
during the war must be returned, and the indemnity 
which Germany must pay is so enormous that the Allies 
asked until 1921 to figure out the amount. 



Organization 

of the 

League of Nations 



States Members of League 



Assembly 



Council 



Permanent Secretariat 
Secretary General 



Permanent 
Commission 

on 
Military and 
Naval Affairs 



Permanent 

Coui-t of 

International 

Justice 



Mandatory 
Commission 



International 

Labor 
Organii^ations 



Internationi 
Bureaus 
Red Cross 





Mandatories 




Advisory 

Mandatory 

for former parts of 

Turkey 


Administrative 

Mandatory 

in 

Central Africa 


Incoi-porating 

Mandatory 

in 

Southwest Africa 

and 

South Pacific Islands 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 123 



A Digest of the Covenant of the 
League of Nations 

By JAMES MORROW MALLOCH 

(N. B. — The numbers enclosed in parenthesis indicate articles in the Paris 
Covenant.) 

Purpose of the League. The purpose of the League 
of Nations is the establishment of peace throughout 
the world and the promotion of co-operation between 
the nations. The general means of realizing this pur- 
pose is the enforcement of international law. (Pre- 
amble.) 

Membership. There are three kinds of membership 
in the League of Nations : 

1. OriginaL The original members of the League 
are to be the United States, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, 
the British Empire, Canada, Australia, South Africa, 
New Zealand, India, China, Cuba, Czecho-Slovakia, Ecu- 
ador, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Hedjez, Hon- 
duras, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, 
Poland, Rumania, Serbia, Siam, Uruguay, Argentine 
Republic, Chili, Colombia, Denmark, Netherlands, Nor- 
way, Paraguay, Persia, Salvador, Spain, Sweden, Switz- 
erland, Venezuela, and Portugal. (Annex.) 

2. Admitted. In addition to these original members, 
other self-governing states or colonies may be admit- 
ted by a two- thirds vote of the Assembly (1). 

3. Temporary. States not members of the League 
when involved in a dispute will be invited to accept 
membership in the League for the settlement of the 
existing difficulty (17). 

WithdrawaL Any members in good standing may 
leave the League after two years' notice (1). 

Expulsion. Any member may be expelled for violat- 
ing the covenants of the League by a vote of the re- 
maining members of the Council (16). 

Government. The government of the League is to 
be located at Geneva, Switzerland (7) . 



124 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

The three main governing bodies of the League are 
an Assembly, a Council, and a Secretariat (2). 

1. The Assembly. The Assembly is to consist of rep- 
resentatives, not more than three, of each member of 
the League. Each state represented has one vote (3). 
The agreement of all states represented at a meeting 
is required for the passage of any measure. But the 
procedure of the Assembly may be determined by a 
majority vote (5). The Assembly chooses members of 
the Council not mentioned in the Covenant, and may 
approve of additional members selected by that body 
(4). It elects to membership in the League (1), re- 
ceives reports from members of any arising causes of 
war (11), considers disputes referred to it by the Coun- 
cil (15), may advise nations to reconsider inapplicable 
treaties and war-provoking conditions (19), and dis- 
cusses any matter of concern to the League not men- 
tioned above (3). 

2. The CounciL The Council is to be a smaller and 
more active body than the Assembly. It represents the 
authority of the great powers of the world. It is to 
consist of one representative from each of the follow- 
ing: the United States, the British Empire, France, 
Italy, Japan, and four other members of the League se- 
lected by the Assembly from time to time. Any inter- 
ested state may be invited to attend the meetings of 
the Council. The Council will meet at least once a 
year (4). The regulations as to voting in the Council 
are the same as in the case of the Assembly (5). 

The Council selects the Secretary General with the 
approval of the Assembly (6), may remove the seat of 
the League from Geneva (7), formulates plans for the 
reduction of national armaments (8), receives informa- 
tion from any state regarding possible causes of war 
(11), investigates disputes between nations (12), will 
draw up plans for an international court (14), appor- 
tions military and naval power among the members 
when the League is at war (16), expels disloyal mem- 
bers from the League (16), determines the degree of 



IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 125 

authority of mandates (22), and provides for the ex- 
penses of all bureaus of the League (24) . 

3. The Permanent Secretariat. The Secretary Gen- 
eral is the executive of the League. He is appointed by 
the Council with the approval of the Assembly. He ap- 
points the secretariat with the approval of the Coun- 
cil (6). It is noteworthy that women may hold posi- 
tions on the secretariat (7). The first Secretary Gen- 
eral is to be Sir Eric Drummond. (Annex.) 

The expenses of the Secretariat are to be apportioned 
to the members of the League according to their share 
in the Universal Postal Union (6). The buildings of 
the League are inviolable (7). 

The Secretariat registers and publishes all treaties 
made by the nations (18). The Secretary General sum- 
mons the Council when war or a threat of war breaks 
out in the world (11) and makes arrangements for the 
investigation of international disputes (15). 

In addition to the three main units of the League's 
machinery the Covenant provides for the following: 

1. A permanent commission to advise the Council 
on military and naval affairs (9). 

2. A Permanent Court of International Justice. This 
court will probably be one of the most important or- 
ganizations within the League. If properly established 
and organized it will exercise the judicial function of 
the League so essential in the enforcement of interna- 
tional law (14). 

3. International Labor Organizations. The League 
proposes to deal with the industrial, moral, and social 
problems of the world (23). 

4. A Mandatory Commission to supervise the colo- 
nial interests of the League. The League proposes to 
solve the problem of dependent peoples and their gov- 
ernmnt through a systm of mandatories. A mandatory 
is an advanced sovereign state acting as an agent of the 
League in colonial affairs. There are to be three classes 
of mandatories : a mandatory to give administrative ad- 
vice to independent nations once a part of the Turkish 



126 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 

Empire; a mandatory to govern for the League the 
people of Central Africa; and mandatories which will 
incorporate into their own territory portions of South- 
west Africa and the South Pacific Islands, which are 
too sparsely populated to justify outside administration 
by the League (22). 

5. The League plans as far as possible to take over 
all international bureaus now existing (24) and to pro- 
mote national Red Cross organizations (25). 

MEANS OF CONTROLLING WAR 

The League proposes to use the following measures 
for the preservation of the peace of the world : : 

1. Reduction of national armaments according to 
geographical conditions and control of private enter- 
prises in implements of war (8). 

2. Interchange by nations of full information as to 
their military and naval programs (8). 

3. Maintenance of the territorial integrity and po- 
Utical independence of members of the League (10). 

4. Reports by nations on threats of war (11). 

5. Submission of disputes to arbitration or inquiry 
and publication by Council and delay of war three 
months after reports made thereby (12 and 15). 

6. Political and economic isolation of and military 
pressure upon any state failing to abide by the recom- 
mendations of arbitration or inquiry (16). 

7. Expulsion from the League of members violating 
Covenant (16). 

8. Invitation of states not members of the League to 
enter the League for the settlement of a specific diffi- 
culty. Any state refusing to so enter the League shall 
be subjected to political and economic isolation and 
military pressure (17). 

9. Abolition of secret treaties by means of a registra- 
tion of all treaties with the secretariat. No unregis- 
tered treaty shall be binding (18). 

10. Abolition of all national obligations inconsistent 
with the covenant of the League (20). 



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Fairbanks. Price $1.00 

The object of this book is to give a simple but detailed descrip- 
tion of the conditions under which we are living and to so 
weave them into a whole that teachers and pupils may grasp 
the elements of geographical knowledge of California. 

The geography of California is extraordinarily varied and 
interesting. Children should not leave school without some con- 
ception of the origin and meaning of the physical features 
about them, of the strongly contrasting climatic conditions and 
the influence which these exert in our lives. 

The author has written in a similar manner on those effects 
and relations which should be known and appreciated by every 
educated resident of California. 

Topical Geography of Europe According to the Prob- 
lem Methods, Showing the Changes Brought About 
by the World War. By Dr. H. W. Fairbanks. This 
book contains 110 pages of size 5 by 7, 8-point type. 
Do you want to have your pupils think when they 
study Europe? Then give them this book with up- 
to-date Map of New Europe. Paper 50c; board.. ..75c 

Indian Stories of the Southwest. By Elizabeth Jud- 
son Roberts. True stories and legends of the Indians 
of San Diego county and other sections of the South- 
west. Illustrated. Price $1.25 



Civil Government Simplified. By J. J. Duvall, Prin- 
cipal of the Columbia School, Fresno, as extended 
and revised by Senator M. B. Johnson. Price, paper 
40c; board 60c 

A text for pupils in Americanization. Original in arrange- 
ment, graphic in its presentation. Teaching good citizenship by 
the clear, definite, actual presentation of our form of State and 
National Government, from the affairs of the School Trustee 
to the President of the United States. 

There are special pages on the Railroad, State Highway, In- 
dustrial Accident and other Commissions, on County Library, 
Farm Advisor, County Purchasing Agents, and other new fea- 
tures of government as contained in new laws not readily 
accessible in other forms. 

There are special pages on the process of law making, of nat- 
uralization, Americanization, and the latest 1919 list of the 
most important State and Federal officials. 

Study its 66 pages. You will want a book for every seventh 
and eighth grade pupil in your school, and for every man and 
woman in your locality who are not thoroughly familiar with our 
Government in action. 

Autobiography of Joaquin Miller. U. S. Bureau of 
Education, Bulletin No. 32, suggests this volume as 
an excellent medium for the teaching of American 
ideals. Price $1.50 

This volume, in addition to his interesting autobiography, in- 
cludes many of the author's best poems, "The Passing of Ten- 
nyson," "The Fortunate Isles," "Cuba Libre," "To Those Who 
Fail," "The Bravest Battle," "Mother Egypt." "Don't Stop at 
the Station Despair," "The Voice of the Dove," and "Death Is 
Delightful." This book should be required to be read by every 
child in the seventh and eighth grades. 

The Western Journal of Education. Edited by Harr 
Wagner. Established 1895. A newsy, progressive 
educational journal for the teacher, school trustee 
and library. Price per year $1.50 

Prices given are subject to the usual discounts to book-sellers 
and to schools or individuals purchasing in quantity. The com- 
pany welcomes your correspondence and will assure it prompt 
attention. Books by western authors printed, published and 
promoted. 



HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 

1111 HEARST BUILDING. Third and Market Sts. 

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 



Depository for the P. Blakiston's Son & Co. High 
School and Reference Text-Books in the Science and 
the American Red Cross Text-Books. 



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